Language in Filipino America by Joseph Axel A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy Approved January 2011 by the Graduate Supervisory Committee: Teresa McCarty, Chair Terrence Wiley Christian Faltis ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY May 2011 ABSTRACT The following dissertation provides perspectives on the social, political, economic, and academic influences on language use, and particularly heritage language use, within the Filipino American community. What is the nature of language in this community? In what ways does language exist or co-exist? The hypothesis that autochthonous Filipino languages in the United States cease to be spoken in favor of English by Filipino Americans was tested through mixed methods of research. Literature and databases were reviewed which provided information concerning statistics, issues, and policies relating to language in Filipino America. Field research and interviews were conducted in which language use was of key interest. Results varied individually and contextually. Language seems to exist within the Filipino American community on a dynamic continuum. Immigrant Filipino Americans appear to be bilingual and multilingual. Second generation Filipino Americans tend to be English dominant with a range of bilingualism. The California Department of Education (CDOE) appears to foster bilingualism / multilingualism through its World Languages Departments (secondary education level), by offering language courses, such as Tagalog-based Filipino. Efforts to maintain non-English, Filipino languages in Arizona are less conspicuous, but they do exist primarily in familial and entrepreneurial ways. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES..................................................................................................vi LIST OF OTHER GRAPHIC DATA.....................................................................ix CHAPTER 1 DISSERTATION OVERVIEW…………………………………………...1 Preface..............................................................................................1 A Motivation to Add to Academic Literature..................................2 The Question....................................................................................4 Review of Chapters..........................................................................6 2 HISTORICAL REVIEW……………………………………………...…17 Philippines and Colonization………………………………………....17 The Encomienda System................................................................19 Early Colonial Education...............................................................20 Spanish Acculturation....................................................................22 Impetus of Independence...............................................................23 3 LANGUAGES OF THE PHILIPPINES………………………………...26 Foreign Influences: Language and National Identity....................27 “Tagalog” or “Filipino”?.....................................................................29 Overview of Philippine Languages………………………………....31 English in the Philippines……………………………………………..32 Philippine House of Representatives Bill 4701…………………....44 iii CHAPTER Page 4 U.S. IMMIGRATION……………………………………………………59 History of Filipino Immigration to the United States …………….61 Filipinos within the U.S. Immigration Context…………………….66 Immigrants, Language, and Language Rankings…………………..71 Filipinos and Chain Migration……………………………………….73 5 TRANSNATIONALISM…………………………………………...……..78 Transnationalism Defined..............................................................80 Motives for Movement: Economic, Politics, and Culture…………83 Modes of Interconnectivity……………………………………………91 Borders within Borders……………………………………………….98 Filipino Transnationalism……………………………………………103 6 FILIPINOS AMERICANS AND LANGUAGE…………………………...108 Generation One………………………………………………………118 Generation Two……………………………………………………...124 Differences and Commonalities…………………………………….128 Impediments to Language Learning………………………………..131 Global Connections......................................................................138 7 ENGLISH AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT……………………...145 Comparisons of English Language Abilities.................................146 California English Language Development Test (CELDT).........151 Geographical Distance, Population, and Language.....................166 Philippine Influence on Filipino American L2 Learners.............167 iv CHAPTER Page 8 FILIPINO/TAGALOG IN CALIFORNIA.………………………….....187 Language Inquisition………………………………………………...188 English and Tagalog in the Philippines……………………………189 Language Labeling.......................................................................190 Co-Habitant Filipino Languages in the U.S.A.............................193 California Language Policy………………………………………...195 9 FILIPINOS AND LANGUAGE IN ARIZONA………………………..225 Languages in Arizona……………………………………………….225 Arizona‟s Academically Institutionalized Languages……………235 Filipinos in Arizona………………………………………………….244 10 CONCLUSIONS…………………………………………………………….278 U.S. Linguistic Influence in the Philippines……………………….278 Generalizing Language in Filipino America………………………283 Arizona……………………………………………………………….284 California…………………………………………………………….285 Community Language Profile……………………………………..286 REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………293 APPENDIX A QUESTIONNAIRE I......………………………………………..……...312 B QUESTIONNAIRE II......……………………………………………....320 C QUESTIONNAIRE III.........…………………………………………....322 v LIST OF TABLES Table Page 3.1 Philippine Elementary Curriculum……………………………….……….…40 3.2 Philippine Secondary Curriculum…………………………………………...41 4.1 Population by Ethnicity in the United States…….………………………...60 4.2 Level of Education of Filipino Immigrants………………………….……...66 4.3 Legal Permanent Resident (LPR) by Country of Last Residence…….….67 4.4 Averages of Immigrants Obtaining Legal Permanent Resident Status…..68 4.5 Country of Birth of Unauthorized Immigrant Population………….…….70 4.6 Year 2000: U.S. Ranking of Language…………….……………………….72 4.7 Year 2005: U.S. Ranking of Language…………….………………….…….72 4.8 Filipinos by Population by State…………………………………….…....74 5.1 Voters by Ethnic Group During 2004 U.S. Presidential Election…….…. 90 6.1 Population by Ethnicity in the United States…………….………………..108 6.2 Year 2005: U.S. Ranking of Language........................................................109 6.3 Population of Tagalog Speakers by State....................................................117 6.4 Language Profile - 49-70 Years Old............................................................120 6.5 Language Profile - Spouses and Children………………………………...124 6.6 Language Profile - 21-28 Years Old……………………………………...127 7.1 Filipino/Tagalog Speakers and English Language Abilities....................148 7.2 Chinese Speakers and English Language Abilities……………………..148 7.3 Spanish Speakers and English Language Abilities……………………..149 7.4 Vietnamese Speakers and English Language Abilities…………………149 vi Table Page 7.5 Korean Speakers and English Language Abilities…………………...…...149 7.6 Punjabi Speakers and English Language Abilities……………………...150 7.7 Hindi Speakers and English Language Abilities…………………….….150 7.8 Population of Filipino Ethnicity and English Language Learners……...151 7.9 Los Angeles County- Languages of English Learning Students……….153 7.10 Number Fluent English Proficient Students by Language……………...155 7.11 Los Angeles County 2006-2008 Students Meeting CELDT.....................156 7.12 San Diego County - Languages of English Learning Students…………157 7.13 Number of Fluent-English-Proficient Students by Language…………..158 7.14 San Diego County - Students Meeting CELDT..……………………….158 7.15 Santa Clara County - Languages of English Learning Students………..159 7.16 Santa Clara - Number of Fluent-English-Proficient Students…………..159 7.17 Santa Clara County –Year 2006-2008 Students Meeting CELDT……...160 7.18 San Mateo - Number of Fluent English Proficient Students……………161 7.19 Solano - Number of Fluent English Proficient Students………………..161 7.20 Percentage of Filipino Students Meeting CELDT: 2005-2008…………162 7.21 State Number of Fluent-English-Proficient Students………………….....162 7.22 State Results of CELDT.................................................................................163 7.23 Population of Filipino Ethnicity, ELLs, and FEPs………………………..165 7.24 Population of Spanish-speaking ELLs, and FEPs………………………...166 7.25 Elementary Enrollment Percentages for Public and Private Schools.......169 7.26 Secondary Enrollment Percentages for Public and Private Schools…….169 vii Table Page 7.27 California High School Exit Exam (CAHSEE)…………………………...173 7.28 Los Angeles County - Dropouts by Ethnicity for 2005-2006……….…..174 7.29 San Diego County - Dropouts by Ethnicity for 2005-2006……………...174 7.30 Santa Clara County - Dropouts by Ethnicity for 2005-2006…………….175 7.31 State Totals - Dropouts by Ethnicity for 2005-2006……………………...175 7.32 Los Angeles County - Graduates with UC/CSU Required Courses…….176 7.33 San Diego County - Graduates with UC/CSU Required Courses……..…177 7.34 Santa Clara County - Graduates with UC/CSU Required Courses…..…..177 7.35 State Data - Graduates with UC/CSU Required Courses………….……..178 7.36 U. S. Median household income 1999…………………………….……….181 7.37 California Median household income 1999…………………….…………182 8.1 Tagalog-Speaking States……………………………………………………192 8.2 Language Courses Offered in California High Schools………………….200 8.3 Alameda County: Enrollment by Language………………………………201 8.4 Los Angeles County: Enrollment by