DISSERTATION Titel der Dissertation „Governance, Empowerment, and Environmental Justice – the Indigenous Tao of Orchid Island“ Verfasserin Mag.a Rosa Enn angestrebter akademischer Grad Doktorin der Philosophie (Dr. phil.) Wien, 2015 Studienkennzahl A 784 307 lt. Studienblatt: Dissertationsgebiet Dr. Studium der Sozialwissenschaften, lt. Studienblatt: Kultur- und Sozialanthropologie Betreuerin / Betreuer: Mag. Dr. Hermann Mückler ao. Univ.-Prof. 2 Acknowledgments I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to my informants and friends in Taiwan and Orchid Island. In particular I would like to thank my Tao family Lumai, Pace, Syaman Mifilang, Yaohsin, Ina, Zhang Haiyu, Dong Enzi, and Guo Jianping, for all their support and hospitality. Ina gave me the Tao name Si Togoren, meaning “although we come from different parts of the world our souls are connected”. I can very much identify with this name. Meeting my Tao family was a lucky coincidence that has developed into something of great high value, not only for my research, but also for personal reasons as our friendship has become strong and sincere and keeps me coming back to Orchid Island. Furthermore, I would like to thank my supervisor and professor Hermann Mückler from the Social and Cultural Anthropology department of the University of Vienna. He has always supported my undertakings and research projects and kept me motivated when I got lost in the course of writing my dissertation. In addition, I thank Dr. Astrid Lipinsky, my dear professor from the Sinology Department at the University of Vienna. Her engagement and enthusiasm had a great influence on my academic career. Dr. Lipinsky invited me to contribute to several workshops, conferences, and miscellanies with articles developed from my research. I am convinced that we will have many more interesting opportunities to work together in the future. I would like express my sincere appreciation to my Taiwanese professors, Huang Shu-min, Awi Mona, Sasala Taiban, and Peter Chang. All of them shared their expertise regarding indigenous issues, governance, and life in Taiwan with me and have been of great value in terms of expanding my knowledge as well as supporting my dissertation. Peter Chang in particular has been very supportive of my research and he is one of the initiators of the National Health Research Institute research project being launched on Orchid Island to find out whether radioactive contamination pollutes the environment and if the worrying health situation among the Tao people is connected with the nuclear waste repository. I am very glad that such a survey is going to be undertaken thanks to Professor Chang’s efforts and his dedication to the most vulnerable. In the course of my doctoral studies I was fortunate to obtain a Research Fellowship offered by the Taiwanese Ministry for Foreign Affairs, Center for Chinese Studies, and the Taiwanese National Central Library in order to conduct seven months of field research in Taiwan. The Ethnology Department of Academia Sinica was my affiliated institution through several field stays and Director Huang Shu-min kindly supported me in realizing my undertakings. I also obtained the Marietta Blau Scholarship from the Austrian Agency for International Cooperation in Education and Research (OeAD) and this funded ten months of field research in Taiwan. From the University of Vienna, I obtained various smaller grants for my doctoral studies. I am very thankful for the opportunity to undertake fieldwork and complete my project with the financial support of these parties. 3 Last but not least, I would like to express my deep gratitude to my family and all my dear friends in Taiwan, Austria, Switzerland, and around the world for their love, patience, motivation, inspiration, and encouragement. Certainly, without them, my way would not have been the same great adventure. 我想在這裡向我的台灣和蘭嶼朋友們表達由衷的感謝。特別是來自 Tao 家的 Lumai, Pace, Syaman Mifilang, Yaohsin, Ina, Zhang Haiyu, Dong Enzi, and Guo Jianping， 謝謝你 們一直以來的支持和無微不至的照顧。Ina 幫我取了一個很有意義並且適合我名字 Si Togoren，代表著“即使來自世界不同的角落，我們的心依舊緊緊相連”。我覺得自己很 幸運，能夠遇到 Tao family。他們賦予了我的人生更高的價值，不僅僅是因為他們幫 助我完成了我的調研，更是因為這份珍貴的友誼本身。感恩上天，讓我們有緣相遇相 知。即使 我現在並不在台灣，我也能深刻的感受到這份強烈且真誠的牽掛，催促著我 再次回到這個美麗的地方。 最後，我想再次表達我對所有朋友們發自內心的感謝，不管你 們是在台灣也好還是在 奧地利或者瑞士，謝謝你們一直以來給我的愛，包容，支持和鼓勵。缺少了任何一部 分，我的人生之旅都不會像如今這樣完美。 4 Contents Acknowledgments...................................................................................................................... 3 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 8 Research Interest – Why the Tao on Orchid Island? ........................................................... 10 Research Goals and Remarks on Methodology ................................................................... 11 Indigenous Peoples, Human Rights, and the Environment: an Anthropological Approach 12 Chapter Outline .................................................................................................................... 14 PART ONE Indigenous Peoples in International Law ............................................................ 16 Chapter 1 Defining Indigenous Peoples .............................................................................. 16 1.1 Governing Indigenous Peoples .................................................................................. 20 Chapter 2 Indigeneity – the Rise of Global Concern ........................................................... 22 Chapter 3 The United Nations and the Rights of Indigenous Peoples ................................. 24 3.1 The United Nations Human Rights System ............................................................... 24 3.2 The Recognition of Indigenous Peoples’ Rights in International Law ...................... 27 Chapter 4 Environment, Human Rights, and Indigenous Peoples ....................................... 31 Summary .............................................................................................................................. 33 PART TWO Indigenous Peoples in Taiwan, and the Tao of Orchid Island ............................ 34 Chapter 5 Taiwan’s Indigenous Peoples .............................................................................. 34 5.1 Austronesian Indigenous Peoples .............................................................................. 34 5.2 The 16 Indigenous Groups ......................................................................................... 37 5.3 Anthropological Research .......................................................................................... 44 5.4 The Legal Position of the Indigenous Peoples in Taiwan.......................................... 45 Chapter 6 The Anthropology of the Tao of Orchid Island ................................................... 49 6.1 Origin of the Tao ........................................................................................................ 51 6.2 Geography and Demography ..................................................................................... 55 6.3 Social and Family System .......................................................................................... 58 6.4 Political Organization ................................................................................................ 60 6.5 Ownership .................................................................................................................. 61 6.6 Subsistence Economy ................................................................................................ 62 6.7 Material Culture ......................................................................................................... 68 6.8 Spiritual Beliefs and Animism ................................................................................... 77 6.9 Festive Occasions, Ceremonial Life, and Rituals ...................................................... 80 6.10 Traditional Ecological Knowledge .......................................................................... 81 Summary .............................................................................................................................. 84 PART THREE History: Colonialism and Assimilation .......................................................... 86 Chapter 7 The Portuguese and Dutch .................................................................................. 87 Chapter 8 Koxinga ............................................................................................................... 88 Chapter 9 Qing Dynasty ....................................................................................................... 88 Chapter 10 The Japanese Colonial Period ........................................................................... 92 5 10.1 Japanese Anthropological Research ........................................................................ 95 10.2 The Japanese on Orchid Island ................................................................................ 96 Chapter 11 Missionaries ...................................................................................................... 98 11.1 Missionary work on Orchid Island .......................................................................... 99 Chapter 12 The Kuomintang .............................................................................................. 102 12.1 The KMT’s Governance of Orchid Island under Martial Law .............................. 104 Summary ...........................................................................................................................