Clemson University TigerPrints All Dissertations Dissertations May 2020 Advancing Spatiotemporal Research of Visitor Travel Patterns Within Parks and Protected Areas Brian Peterson Clemson University, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://tigerprints.clemson.edu/all_dissertations Recommended Citation Peterson, Brian, "Advancing Spatiotemporal Research of Visitor Travel Patterns Within Parks and Protected Areas" (2020). All Dissertations. 2617. https://tigerprints.clemson.edu/all_dissertations/2617 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Dissertations at TigerPrints. It has been accepted for inclusion in All Dissertations by an authorized administrator of TigerPrints. For more information, please contact [email protected]. ADVANCING SPATIOTEMPORAL RESEARCH OF VISITOR TRAVEL PATTERNS WITHIN PARKS AND PROTECTED AREAS A Dissertation Presented to the Graduate School of Clemson University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy Parks, Recreation, and Tourism Management by Brian Ashley Peterson May 2020 Accepted by: Dr. Matthew Brownlee, Committee Chair Dr. Jeffrey Hallo Dr. Adam Beeco Dr. David White ABSTRACT Recent technological advances have made it possible to more accurately understand visitor travel patterns and their associated impacts. These advancements help to: accumulate voluminous data sets, collect alternative location data similar to GPS data, conduct spatiotemporal inferential statistics, and advance spatiotemporal visualizations. However, investigations of visitor travel patterns have not kept pace with recent technological advancements. Therefore, the purpose of this dissertation was to advance spatiotemporal research of visitor travel patterns within parks and protected areas by leveraging new technologies. The studies reported in this dissertation were designed to begin filling this gap, and include results from research conducted at: 1) Theodore Roosevelt National Park to identify which spatiotemporal variables are the most important to managers for understanding visitor travel patterns; 2) Hawai’i Volcanoes National Park to identify air tour travel patterns; and 3) the Bonneville Salt Flats to understand visitor travel patterns in a dispersed recreation setting that lacks organizational infrastructure. These three independent but conceptually linked studies were designed to inform our understanding of visitor travel patterns within parks and protected areas. This information is important so that park managers: a) understand how space and time influence visitor routes; and b) have relevant information to continue to conserve the biophysical resource while providing opportunities for quality visitor experiences. Results from the study at Theodore Roosevelt National Park showed that managers identified three temporal variables as being the most important towards understanding ii visitor travel patterns. These variables were analyzed to determine time allocation and vehicle speed patterns. Results from the study at Hawai’i Volcanoes National Park determined air tour travel patterns and which terrestrial attraction areas were the most affected by air tours. The study at the Bonneville Salt Flats identified potential areas of conflict and designed areas recommended for monitoring. Overall, this dissertation contributes to further understanding of visitor travel patterns, which provides information for managers to continue conserving parks and protected areas for the benefit of society. iii For my enduring family iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This dissertation would not have been possible without the support and assistance from numerous mentors, colleagues, friends, and family members. I wish I could thank each and every one of you in this dissertation. My love and gratitude for all of you is unwavering. First and foremost is Dr. Matthew Brownlee, my committee chair. I had the luxury of completing two graduate degrees aided by the guidance and mentoring of Dr. Brownlee. I’ll never forget when Dr. Brownlee said, “Getting a PhD is a beautiful process.” I used to not understand what that meant, but now I do! With utmost gratitude and respect – thank you Dr. Brownlee! This short acknowledgement is incomparable to the magnitude of my appreciation. I also was fortunate to be supported by a fabulous dissertation committee comprised of Dr. Jeffrey Hallo, Dr. Adam Beeco, and Dr. David White. Thank you Dr. Hallo for continuously challenging me to advance my skillset by questioning my approaches and justifications. I’m a stronger analytical thinker thanks to you. Dr. Beeco, thank you for challenging me to identify problems and carefully formulate my research. My ability to connect research to real world problems is an imperative skill that you fostered. Thank you Dr. White for challenging me to advance my GIS skillset. My GIS skillset is now larger than when we first met. I would also like to acknowledge specific help I received while conducting this research. Thank you to Dr. Ryan Sharp and Tyler Cribbs for helping with the research conducted at Theodore Roosevelt National Park. Thank you to Dr. Adam Beeco and Damon Joyce for helping with the research conducted at Hawai’i Volcanoes National v Park. Thank you to Dr. Chris Zajchowski and Dr. Michael Blacketer for helping with the research conducted at the Bonneville Salt Flats. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS TITLE PAGE ……………………………………………………………………………………... i ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………………………………. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………………………………………………………………….. v LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………………………………… x LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………………………………….. xi INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………………… 1 1.1. References……………………………………………………………………………. 6 SPATIOTEMPORAL VARIABLES TO UNDERSTAND VISITOR TRAVEL PATTERNS: A MANAGEMENT-CENTRIC APPROACH……………………………………………………… 8 2.1. Abstract………………………………………………………………………………. 8 2.2. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………... 9 2.3. Literature Review…………………………………………………………………….. 11 2.3.1. Travel Pattern Variables…………………………………………………... 11 2.3.2. Data Clustering……………………………………………………………. 13 2.3.3. Geovisualizations………………………………………………………….. 15 2.4. Study Objectives……………………………………………………………………... 16 2.5. Methods………………………………………………………………………………. 17 2.5.1. Study Area………………………………………………………………… 17 2.5.2. Procedure Overview………………………………………………………. 18 2.5.3. GPS Data Loggers………………………………………………………… 18 2.5.4. Identification of Spatiotemporal Travel Pattern Variables………………... 20 2.5.5. Data Clustering……………………………………………………………. 21 2.5.6. Spatiotemporal Analyses………………………………………………….. 21 2.5.7. Geovisualizations………………………………………………………….. 22 2.6. Results………………………………………………………………………………... 23 2.6.1. Travel Pattern Variables & Clustering – Research Questions 1 & 2……… 24 2.6.2. Spatiotemporal Analyses of Travel Patterns Groupings – Research Question 3………………………………………………………………………... 25 2.6.3. Geovisualizations – Research Question 4…………………………………. 27 2.7. Discussion……………………………………………………………………………. 28 2.7.1. Limitations………………………………………………………………… 31 2.7.2. Conclusions………………………………………………………………... 32 2.8. References……………………………………………………………………………. 33 SPATIOTEMPORAL ANALYSIS TO IDENTIFY AIR TOUR TRAVEL PATTERNS AT HAWAI’I VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK…………………………………………………... 44 3.1. Abstract………………………………………………………………………………. 45 3.2. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………... 46 3.3. Literature Review…………………………………………………………………….. 48 3.3.1. Air Tours…………………………………………………………………... 48 3.3.2. Tracking Air Tours ADS-B Data………………………………………….. 49 3.3.3. Visitor Travel Patterns…………………………………………………….. 50 3.3.4. GIS………………………………………………………………………… 51 3.4. Study Objectives……………………………………………………………………... 52 3.5. Methods………………………………………………………………………………. 54 3.5.1. Study Area………………………………………………………………… 54 3.5.2. Procedure Overview………………………………………………………. 54 vii TABLE OF CONTENTS CONTINUED 3.5.3. Data Collection and Preparation…………………………………………... 54 3.5.4. Descriptive Statistics………………………………………………………. 55 3.5.5. Analysis for Research Question 1…………………………………………. 56 3.5.6. Analysis for Research Question 2…………………………………………. 57 3.6. Results………………………………………………………………………...……… 58 3.6.1. Descriptive Statistics………………………………………………………. 58 3.6.2. Research Question 1………………………………………………………. 58 3.6.3. Research Question 2………………………………………………………. 60 3.6.4. Research Question 3………………………………………………………. 60 3.7. Discussion……………………………………………………………………………. 61 3.7.1. Limitations………………………………………………………………… 60 3.7.2. Conclusions………………………………………………………………... 65 3.8. References……………………………………………………………………………. 66 GRID ANALYSIS OF VISITOR TRAVEL PATTERNS IN A DISPERSED OUTDOOR RECREATION SETTING………………………………………………………………………... 81 4.1. Abstract………………………………………………………………………………. 82 4.2. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………... 83 4.3. Literature Review…………………………………………………………………….. 85 4.3.1. Visitor Travel Patterns…………………………………………………….. 85 4.3.2. Visitor Conflict……………………………………………………………. 86 4.3.3. GPS and GIS………………………………………………………………. 87 4.3.4. Grid Analysis……………………………………………………………… 88 4.3.5. Spatial Behavior…………………………………………………………… 89 4.4. Study Objectives……………………………………………………………………... 89 4.5. Methods………………………………………………………………………………. 90 4.5.1. Study Area………………………………………………………………… 90 4.5.2. Procedure Overview………………………………………………………. 91 4.5.3. GPS Data Loggers………………………………………………………… 92 4.5.4. Data Cleaning and Configuring…………………………………………… 93 4.5.5. Descriptive Analyses……………………………………………………… 94 4.5.6. Grid Construction…………………………………………………………. 94 4.5.7. Hot Spot Analysis – Research Questions 1 & 2…………………………... 95 4.5.7. Spatial Grouping Analysis