DEVELOPING THE COVERT TRAUMATIC EXPERIENCE SCALE (COTES): A RETROSPECTIVE EARLY PSYCHOSOCIAL TRAUMA ASSESSMENT TOOL by Tiffany E. Vastardis A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of The College of Education in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Florida Atlantic University Boca Raton, FL December 2019 Copyright 2019 by Tiffany E. Vastardis ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The journey to the completion of this project was certainly not one that was treaded alone. Many individuals have contributed to this process, and the fostering of the personal growth, development, and fortitude necessary to accomplish this feat. I would like to take this opportunity to recognize those of who have served pivotal roles in this pursuit. First, I would like to acknowledge my family, Mom and T.J. Whether it is the case that we are as similar as three completely different people could possibly be, or that we are as different as three extremely similar people could possibly be; the reality remains that, no matter what, we have always stood together to bear the brunt of each storm that we have been forced to face. Things have not always been easy; however, I shall forever be proud of both of you, and grateful for how far that we have all come. In addition, I would also like to thank a more recent addition to our clutch, Michael, as your sustained encouragement and enthusiasm have served as guiding lights at times during which I began to question my aptitude and endurance. On the note of family, I would like to take a moment to recognize those who have proven that “the blood of the covenant” can, indeed, be “thicker than the water of the womb”, namely, The Barrs, The Perrys, and all of my loved ones in the Bahamas. Thank you for providing unfaltering support through some of our family’s toughest times. In homage to this premise, I cannot continue without mentioning three individuals who never fell short of expressing the positive regard, love, and faith that has carried me iv through each of life’s trials and tribulations, and motivated me to continue to strive, “Grandma and Grandpa in Nassau” and “Papou George”, may you all rest in peace. I would also like to express my appreciation to my “partner in crime”, David. Throughout this process, you have never fallen short of serving as a sounding board of reason, a purveyor of unconditional love, and an unflinching beacon of strength. Through considerable challenges, you have extended a level of understanding that has kept me afloat and afforded me the ability to persist and, eventually, look back upon such times with a smile on my face and laughter within my heart. You have brought so much light into my life that I am not certain how I saw things clearly before we decided to test out what would happen if we took decades of friendship a few steps further. You are truly an exceptional person, and I am honored to be with you as we take the next chapters of life by the reins. This “mission” could not have been accomplished without the support of the many esteemed professionals and scholars with whom I have had the pleasure to work during my studies at Florida Atlantic University. Dr. Gill, not only did you serve as my Advisor since my first day in the program, you continued to scaffold my scholarship as my dissertation committee Chair. You facilitated me with a deeper understanding of theory and emboldened me to challenge myself in ways that I did not even know were attainable. You made me an author. You are my mentor and role model. It is my hope that our alliance continues to carry far into the future. Dr. Villares, you endorsed my ideas and gave me the confidence to proceed with an endeavor that I was not certain would prove feasible. You were there to address all of my inquiries and expanded my understanding of various methodological approaches to v research which I am certain to employ in the future. Furthermore, you provided the foundation necessary for me to build upon and gain a better understanding of the psychometric underpinnings of instrument design. I look forward to future work together through the Southern Association for Counselor Education and Supervision (SACES). Dr. Emelianchik-Key, I cannot thank you enough for the priceless knowledge and notes from personal experience that you shared with me during the latter stages of work on this project. I have learned more about statistical analyses and their interpretations, as a result of our exchanges, than I have across my entire academic experience. Not only did this serve to mollify the ever-present sense of “Imposter Syndrome”, it has given me the confidence to move forward with this instrument for publication and future analyses. I would also like to thank all of my FAU friends, cohort mates, and colleagues, especially those of whom played pivotal roles in the execution of this project. Your names are far too many to list, yet your contributions have not gone unnoticed. To “The Outliers”, the network of social support that our union and provided as we strove towards and attained candidacy status and beyond, were integral to my trajectory of progress. To my FAU Expert Panel members, your discerning eyes and field expertise were fundamental to the developmental stages of this project. Josh, I sincerely appreciate the extra time and effort and that you invested into the initial item development tasks. Program alumni Drs. George Stoupas and Ali Cunningham Abbott, my longtime friend and colleague, Alexis Cancemi, and members of the International Association of Trauma Professionals (IATP), thank you for your contributions to the Panel. Ali Bourdeau, a special thanks to you for your assistance with recruiting local members for my Panel. Additionally, I would like to extend notes of gratitude to both Vassilia and Scott, as your vi involvement in the data collection process was indispensable to the completion of this project. Dr. Maureen Kenny of Florida International University (FIU), thank you for recognizing my potential. It was my role as your Graduate Assistant that informed my decision to transfer into the field. It was your willingness to maintain contact and provide numerous letters of recommendation over the past decade that has bestowed upon me unique opportunities for employment and the scholarly advancement that has brought me to the point at which I now stand. Mrs. Gwendolyn DeShong, you were the first to acknowledge and promote my prowess as a young writer, and were the best educator, coach, and consultant for which one could ask. May you also rest in peace. Last but not least, to the FAU Presidential Fellowship Fund, the FAU Graduate Academic Excellence Fellowship Fund, the FAU Graduate Diversity Fellowship Fund, the Dolores A. Auzenne Fellowship Foundation, and the Dr. Daniel B. Newell & Aurel B. Newell Doctoral Fellowship Foundation, thank you for partially endowing my Doctoral studies. Finally, I would also like to thank SACES for endorsing me as an Emerging Leader and maintaining the organization’s investment in my professional development and success. vii ABSTRACT Author: Tiffany E. Vastardis Title: Developing the Covert Traumatic Experience Scale (COTES): A retrospective early psychosocial trauma assessment tool Institution: Florida Atlantic University Dissertation Advisor: Dr. Carman S. Gill Degree: Doctor of Philosophy Year: 2019 The purpose of this study was to develop and explore the factor structure of a retrospective assessment instrument designed to identify the presence of early covert traumas in an individual’s history. Covert traumas are those which are psychosocial, and often interpersonal, in nature (Altobelli, 2017). While a deficiency in the available body of research addressing such traumas currently exists, limited research suggests that experiences of such phenomena may affect individual potential across various domains of development, functioning, health, and well-being (van der Kolk, 2014). In addition, the residual effects of such traumas may exacerbate adverse adult outcomes, such as experiences of chronic pain, proclivities towards maladaptive forms of coping, and hindrances to academic and occupational performance and achievement (Felitti et al., 1998). Furthermore, some theorists propose that the impact of such traumas, especially when compounded, may cause more emotional harm than exposure to a single overtly traumatic event (Staggs, 2014). Developed for administration in clinical, research, and educational settings, an initial scale of 45-items, touching upon 16 identified domains of covert trauma was designed, following a careful review of the available literature and consultation with both an Expert Panel and Focus Group. Data yielded from a convenience sample of N=204 college undergraduates who took an on-line version of the CoTES measure was utilized for analysis. Preliminary KMO and Bartlett’s tests were run, deeming the model suitable for Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA). Principal Component Analysis (PCA) with direct oblimin rotation with Kaiser Normalization was then applied, producing an eight-factor solution, loading 39 of the original 45 items. Together, these eight factors explained for 68.611% of the variance in the total scale. Items retained represented each of the originally identified domains of covert trauma, and internal consistency for the final scale was exceptional, at α = 0.957. While these results show promise for the CoTES as a useful, psychometrically robust instrument for future administration in both research and clinical settings, further analyses must be undertaken to confirm the CoTES model factor structure, objectively measure further aspects of reliability and validity, and to draw conclusions regarding the meaning of scores obtained from administration. ix DEVELOPING THE COVERT TRAUMATIC EXPERIENCE SCALE (COTES): A RETROSPECTIVE EARLY PSYCHOSOCIAL TRAUMA ASSESSMENT TOOL LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................. x LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................