From the City to the Mountain and Back Again: Situating Contemporary Shugendô in Japanese Social and Religious Life Mark Patrick McGuire A Thesis In The Department of Religion Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Concordia University Montréal, Québec, Canada April 2013 Mark Patrick McGuire, 2013 CONCORDIA UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES This is to certify that the thesis prepared By: Mark Patrick McGuire Entitled: From the City to the Mountain and Back Again: Situating Contemporary Shugendô in Japanese Social and Religious Life and submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Religion) complies with the regulations of the University and meets the accepted standards with respect to originality and quality. Signed by the final examining committee: Chair Dr. V. Penhune External Examiner Dr. B. Ambros External to Program Dr. S. Ikeda Examiner Dr. N. Joseph Examiner Dr. M. Penny Thesis Supervisor Dr. M. Desjardins Approved by Chair of Department or Graduate Program Director Dr. S. Hatley, Graduate Program Director April 15, 2013 Dr. B. Lewis, Dean, Faculty of Arts and Science ABSTRACT From the City to the Mountain and Back Again: Situating Contemporary Shugendô in Japanese Social and Religious Life Mark Patrick McGuire, Ph.D. Concordia University, 2013 This thesis examines mountain ascetic training practices in Japan known as Shugendô (The Way to Acquire Power) from the 1980s to the present. Focus is given to the dynamic interplay between two complementary movements: 1) the creative process whereby charismatic, media-savvy priests in the Kii Peninsula (south of Kyoto) have re-invented traditional practices and training spaces to attract and satisfy the needs of diverse urban lay practitioners, and 2) the myriad ways diverse urban ascetic householders integrate lessons learned from mountain austerities in their daily lives in Tokyo and Osaka. This thesis argues that the creation of condensed mountain entry rituals such as the overnight Lotus Ascent of Mount Ômine, a successful campaign to designate sacred training grounds in the Kii Peninsulaa UNESCO World Heritage cultural landscape and creation of an “eco-pilgrimage” in Kumano are best understood as creative strategies by Shugendô priests to maintain financial solvency, relevancy and market share while providing direct access to the transcendent in a competitive and uncertain time. Though Shugendô priests and UNESCO designation served as gateways into this research, the experiences of urban lay ascetics are emphasized throughout. Two questions animate the thesis: Why does rebirth during a grueling, twenty-six kilometer overnight mountain ascent imagined as ritual death and re-entry into the Tantric Womb become necessary? How might urban ascetics' initial motivations and subsequent integration of mountain learning resonate with broader concerns about employment, environment, family, health and well-being, iii rising suicide rate, memory and commemoration during the recessionary and zero-growth period known as Japan's "Lost Decade(s)” (1990s - present)? Reflections upon the attempt to represent this place and these practices in an accessible documentary film will be one element of a self-reflexive, collaborative and participatory research methodology informed by participant-observer fieldwork, interviews, focus groups and historiographical examination of the relevant primary, secondary and theoretical works. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This project could not have been achieved without the patience, generosity, good will and enthusiasm of many Shugendô priests and lay participants in Yoshino, Shingu, Osaka and Tokyo. I am grateful to Tanaka Riten, Tateishi Kôshô, Tateishi Rika, Gojô Ryoki, Gojô Kakugyô, Iwagishi Shinsei, Yamamoto Noboru, Harasawa Kenta, Ishihara Jun, Ozaki Hitoshi, Fujie Noritoshi, Miyamoto Yasuhiko, Okada Taikô and countless other individuals who provided practical assistance and innumerable insights. Tateishi Kôshô hosted me and filmmaking partner Jean-Marc Abela at his training temple Sangakurin for six weeks to observe, participate in and film daily activities. Two unnamed staff members at the Ministry of Culture (Tokyo) and UNESCO (New York) candidly discussed their research into cultural property, national treasures and UNESCO World Heritage. In Ibaraki the Fujita, Kawanishi and Okazaki families welcomed me into their homes and have taken me under their wings over nearly two decades of life, work and research in Japan. I can never repay them for their kindness and all they have taught me. A chance encounter with Miyake Hitoshi at Haguro-san and the gift of his signed name card propelled me toward Kinpusenji for the annual Frog Hop festival in 2002. Though I ultimately did not pursue all leads that he and his voluminous scholarship provided, I am grateful for this serendipitous encounter and the good will and affection bestowed upon me by Tanaka Riten and Kinpusenji staff when I arrived unannounced with Miyake-sensei’s introduction. In Montréal, my thesis committee members Marc des Jardins, Norma Joseph and Matthew Penney guided me through all stages of doctoral study: exams, thesis research, writing and defense. With their encouragement, I waded into several new and productive fields I would never have thought to pursue. Marc, Norma and Matthew listened patiently to initial, clumsy efforts to engage these new materials and perspectives, read several rough drafts of the proposal and thesis and provided extensive comments, questions and constructive criticism throughout. Matthew’s encyclopedic knowledge of and sharp insights about contemporary Japanese history together with his ability to situate the relevant issues in both very local and global contexts was always illuminating. Sharon Carey at the Graduate School provided expert technical assistance and flexibility, helping make possible a June graduation, not to mention a restful and stress-free summer. Shaman Hatley and Lorenzo di Thommaso supported the thesis and enabled a streamlined process to completion. Satoshi Ikeda provided refreshing candor and chastised me in all the right ways, imparting confidence that reflecting upon and revealing the nature of interactions with research participants is a legitimate and needed component of a participatory research methodology. Barbara Ambros’ rigor, clarity and constant curiosity and innovation in archival and field research methods have been inspiring. I am grateful for the great care and attention she gave to reading the manuscript, offering her considerable knowledge and challenging me to bring it to a level of precision and clarity I could not have achieved otherwise. Friends and colleagues Deb Lunny, Kory Goldberg, François Thibeault, Mario Bellemare, Paul di Stefano, Bobby Ramsay, Scott Lenhart, Dan McKee, Ted Burger, Avery Larose, Sylvain Duguay, Tom Young, Alberto Sanchez, Mohamed Mehdi, Kateri Décary, Julien Novales-Flamarique, Sarwat Viqar, Sujata Ghosh, David Austin, Courtney Lester, Steven Roy, Jonathan Lalancette, Marie-Laurence Dolbec-Hebert, Stefan Verna and Adam Thompson encouraged me, offered helpful advice, helped me think through difficult problems and generally provided outstanding company. Jean-Marc Abela took a chance on a risky film project in a culture and language he knew nothing about, devoted thousands of hours to film, edit, mix and discuss the film with me, and consistently demonstrated a great deal of creativity, sensitivity and v patience. Several of Abela’s photographs appear in the thesis with his kind permission. Imaizumi Eiko and Alena Eckelmann provided eyewitness reports, personal photographs and critical feedback on early drafts of chapters. I am grateful to editors Pamela Winfield and Charles Henderson for the invitation to present an earlier version of Chapter Three in a special issue of Cross Currents on contemporary Asian religions. Publisher Wiley-Blackwell granted permission to republish passages from the article. Maris Boyd-Gillette, Hank Glassman, Levi McLaughlin, Tullio Lobetti, Timothy Lehmann and Jonathan Thumas read and offered critical feedback and helpful suggestions on various chapters. John Deters devoted many hours to speaking and writing about his engagements with and curiosity about Shugendô. Carina and Sandra Roth, two outstanding scholars and filmmakers, reached out to Abela and me and have been exceptionally generous with their insights, materials and ideas. Gaynor Sekimori answered many questions and provided research materials and encouragement. Her invitation to participate in a Shugendô film festival and symposium at SOAS, University London, to honor the memory of her teacher Professor Carmen Blacker stimulated many ideas and questions. The experience enabled discussions with Kitamura Minao, Lucia Dolce, Tullio Lobelli, Sandra and Carina Roth. Paul Swanson shared his knowledge and provided rare video recordings from early fieldwork. David W. Plath has been a regular conversation partner and mentor in all matters related to ethnographic storytelling and filmmaking. Above all, I am grateful for his friendship, encouragement and wisdom. Cornell University’s East Asia program funded initial research fieldwork (2002 and 2003). John Abbott College’s Faculty Professional Development Committee provided a travel grant and supported follow-up research and filmmaking (2007). The Buddhist Film Foundation served as a fiscal sponsor and the US-Japan Foundation funded post-production of the documentary film