Journalism and Collective Memory: Le Monde and the question of French torture in Algeria (1957 — 2000-01) Blanche Morel A Thesis In the Department of Journalism Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts (Journalism Studies) at Concordia University Montreal, Quebec, Canada August 2017 © Blanche Morel, 2017 CONCORDIA UNIVERSITY School of Graduate This is to certify that the thesis prepared By: Blanche Morel Entitled: Journalism and Collective Memory: Le Monde and the question of French torture in Algeria (1957 — 2000-01) and submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Journalism Studies complies with the regulations of the University and meets the accepted standards with respect to originality and quality. Signed by the final examining committee: Chair Dr. David Secko Examiner Dr. Brian Gabrial Examiner Dr. Greg Nielsen Thesis Supervisor Dr. James McLean Approved by Chair of Department or Graduate Program Director 2017 Dean of Faculty ABSTRACT Journalism and Collective Memory: Le Monde and the question of French torture in Algeria (1957 — 2000-01) Blanche Morel Concordia University, 2017 Memory studies have long assigned journalism to the role of mere primary recorder of events, therefore denying its power to shape collective remembrance. Based on the assumption that collective memory results from the interdependent process between traditional representations of the past, memory makers and consumers, this study explores journalism as a concrete and abstract site of collective memory. As such, it contends that journalism is a material and institutional pool of knowledge built out of disparate yet collective memories, as well as an interactive and durable memorial site that lays the ground for social change. Applying a mixed methods research design, this thesis examines the impact of the French “journal of record” Le Monde in the collective remembrance of torture during the Algerian War (1954-1962). The study employs quantitative content analysis and critical discourse analysis to explore Le Monde’s 1957 and 2000-01 coverage of the use of torture in Algeria, two periods separated by official amnesty laws that crystallized the memory of the war in favour of the official narrative. The deployed discourses are compared and contrasted by opinion polls and interviews of historical, sociological and journalistic experts on State-sponsored torture. As such, this thesis goes beyond the hypothesis that journalism acts as a memory agent through the practice of commemoration by shifting the focus on institutional and narrative memory that collectively produce, disseminate and sustain memories over time. iii Acknowledgements I would first like to thank my supervisor Dr. James McLean for his continuous support and valuable comments throughout the progress of this thesis. I would also like to thank Dr. David Secko, Dr. Brian Gabrial, Dr. Chedly Belkhodja and Dr. Mike Gasher for opening new and exciting research horizons during my Master’s studies at Concordia University. Moreover, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Concordia University which gave me opportunity to conduct my interviews in France and more importantly, to pursue my studies in Canada. I am also gratefully indebted to Florence Beaugé, Raphaëlle Branche, Edwy Plenel, Laëticia Bucaille and Guy Pervillé who kindly accepted to participate in this study. Also, I would like to acknowledge Greg Nielsen, Chair of the Sociology and Anthropology Department at Concordia University, as the third reader of this thesis. Finally, I would like to thank my family and friends, and particularly my sister Colette and my godmother Marie for their invaluable love and support in my life. iv Table of Contents List of Tables ................................................................................................................................... vi Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................. 1 Chapter 2: Journalism and Memory Studies ................................................................................. 8 2.1 An Overview of Memory Studies ...................................................................................... 8 2.2 The Media and Memory Studies ........................................................................................ 9 2.3 Journalism and Memory Studies ...................................................................................... 11 2.4 The Collective Memory of the Algerian War .................................................................. 18 2.5 Memories of the War: Between Oblivion and Controversy ............................................ 20 2.6 Exposure of Torture in the Print Media (1955-2002) ...................................................... 21 2.7 Public Opinion and Torture .............................................................................................. 26 Chapter 3: Methodology ............................................................................................................. 31 3.1 The Inspiratory Worldview .............................................................................................. 31 3.2 The Research Design and Methods .................................................................................. 32 3.3 Data Analysis ................................................................................................................... 40 Chapter 4: The Strategic Discourses of 1957 ............................................................................. 54 4.1 Quantitative Analysis ....................................................................................................... 54 4.2 Qualitative Analysis ......................................................................................................... 58 Chapter 5: Le Monde in 2000-2001 ............................................................................................ 74 5.1 Quantitative Analysis ....................................................................................................... 74 5.2 Qualitative Analysis ......................................................................................................... 75 Chapter 6: Journalism and Memory: Concluding Remarks........................................................ 90 Appendices 109 References 152 v List of Tables Table 3.1 Coding book for the quantitative analysis ...................................................................... 42 Table 3.2 Coding book for interviews ............................................................................................ 51 vi Chapter 1: Introduction “Florence Beaugé, avec son travail, a plus fait pour la réconciliation Franco-algérienne et le rapprochement entre les deux pays que 43 ans de diplomatie française.” (“With her work, Florence Beaugé did more for the Franco-Algerian reconciliation and the rapprochement between the two countries than 43 years of French diplomacy.”) - Henri Alleg, author of The Question1 Henri Alleg, an (if not the) emblematic figure of the exposure of torture by the French army during the Algerian War (1954-1962), refers here to the anamnestic work undertaken by the French newspaper Le Monde in the person of journalist Florence Beaugé. In 2000, Beaugé first ignited the “torture controversy”, in Neil MacMaster’s words, by unveiling torture narratives, as well as obtaining confessions from respected career military men whose impunity had been guaranteed by several amnesty laws enacted in the decades following the war (2002, 449-459).2 To fully understand Beaugé’s contribution, and as a matter of context for this thesis, it is important to situate the use of state-sponsored torture within the wider context of the generally received history of the Algerian conflict. Soon after losing the war for Indochina in August 1954, France engaged in an armed conflict with Algeria, a North African French colony since 1848. This conflict included what came to be known as the “sale guerre” (dirty war), which employed methods condemned by international conventions, illegal violence such as massacres, terrorism and torture. It is certain that the “sale guerre” and the Algerian War in general contributed to the collapse of the Fourth Republic (1946-1958), the return of General Charles de Gaulle in 1958, the fall of the French 1 In an email exchange on December 12, 2016, Le Monde’s journalist Florence Beaugé quoted Henri Alleg, author of The Question (1958 book detailing the French methods of torture during the Algerian war), who testified for her at her trial against Jean-Marie Le Pen in May 2003, as he sued Le Monde for label after revelations about his participation to torture in Algeria. 2 According to MacMaster, the “torture controversy” began in 1998 with the 1997-1998 trial of Maurice Papon for crimes against humanity committed during the Second World War, which also shed a light on his role as Prefect of Police during the Paris massacre of October 17, 1961. However, this thesis focuses on the first year of the controversy in the media (2000-01), which started with Le Monde’s revelations. 1 Empire (1534-1962), and the exodus of 1 million Pieds noirs (Algerians of European descent) to the homeland (McCormack 2007). The methods used by the French army in its Algerian “peacemaking operations” – the conflict was only officially acknowledged to be a de facto war in 1999 – triggered