THE POLITICAL THOUGHT OF AL-JÄHIZ WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE QUESTION OF KHILAFA (IMAMATE): A CHRONOLOGICAL APPROACH (VOLUME I) JAMAL F. EL-'ATTAR THESIS PRESENTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH 1996 V. , C, W44X DECLARATION I HEREBY CERTIFY THAT THE WORK CONTAINED WITHIN THIS THESIS WAS ENTIRELY COMPOSED BY MYSELF. ý.ý. ýF ýý. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Praise be to Allah, the most exalted, the provider of bounties and of beneficent truth, who made it possible that this researchbe accomplished. I would like to expressmy warmest thanks to all those whose assistanceand encouragement proved to be vital in this respect. Financially, I am most grateful for the generousgrant given by the "Barakdt Trust", (Oxford) in the period 1990-1993, without which it would have been impossible for me to join the University of Edinburgh. I am equally indebted to the University of Edinburgh's "Cowan House Scholarship Committee", and to "al- Magäsid's Institute of Islamic Studies", (Beirut) for their financial support in the final stagesof my research. Academically, I am eternally grateful for all the scholarly advice and editorial support that each of my supervisors, Dr. I. K. A. Howard and Dr. M. V. McDonald never hesitated to give through all the stages of my study. I am most obliged to Dr. M. V. McDonald who kindly edited the final draft. I would also like to thank all membersof the Departmentof Islamic Studiesfor their continuous support, in particular Dr. C. Hillenbrand, Professor Y. Suleimän and the secretariesMiss I. Crawford and Miss L. Scobie. My deepest gratitude goes, moreover, to my parents, relatives and friends whose good wishes and support I shall always treasure. Special thanks are for the generous technical support that I have received from Professor Y. Suleiman, the staff of the Computing Service at the University of Edinburgh, namely Mr. P. Scott, Mrs. E. Egan, Mr. T. Morris, Mr. 'Abdul-Majothi. I am equally grateful to Mr. H. al-Athiri, Mr. T. Mallüsh, Mr. Hishäm Ahmad, Dr. M. W. Raza, Mr. A. al-Husayyin, Mr. I. Padilla, Dr. K. al-Barräq, Dr. A. al-Sabiri, Dr. 'Abdul `Aziz al-Zurgäni, Mr. M. Bin Haddad, Mr. `Abdul Rahmän A. Salim, and Dr. H. B. al-Säliib not to forget Ms. S. Stewart of the University Library and the staff of the Inter-Library Loan Service; I am moreover extremely grateful for all the exemplary technical assistance that each of Mr. Morris and Mr. Scott uniquely provided for the final appearence of the thesis: to all I owe my utmost respect and appreciation. iv ABSTRACT OF THESIS The aim of this thesis is to study some of the earliest literary works in classical Arabic Literature, namely those of the cAbbäsid man of letters, al-Jähiz (160-250/776-869), that have dealt with the question of caliphate (Imäma), and are concerned with knowing who has the right to rule and the criteria underlying that right. The importance of this research lies in its attempt to reconstruct chronologically al-Jähiz's political works and thought by unfolding the full politico- religious heritage before al-Jähiz in order to understand the forces that had moulded his thought (Islamic, Umawi, °Uthmäni, Muctazili, Khäriji, Shi' i, Hanbali, etc. ), and assist any future study of his impact on other political authors. While benefiting from previous studies on al-Jähiz, generalizations that present him as a non-changeable entity have been avoided, in order to reach a more comprehensive judgement and fruitful understanding of al-Jähiz's political philosophy. Thus a detailed analysis of twenty seven extant Jähizian works that span half a century of °Abbäsid polity must precede any global assessment of the broad lines of al-Jähiz's political theory, which has to await the laborious yet indispensible and promising task of tracing the doctrinal constants and variants displayed in al- Jähiz's political thought throughout the varying political eras. Scholars of al-Jähiz are therefore offered a unique opportunity in which the full spectrum of his political thought is re-assembled after detecting the developmental stages and major landmarks followed, by linking them to their respective politico-religious settings and also guided by the chronological markers and contextual pointers that prove that link. My critical examination of al-Jähiz's political literature also aims at unveiling the ideological and political concerns of the `Abbäsid community and caliphate and evaluating al-Jähiz's role in the propagation and shaping of °Abbäsid politics. I have also tried to interpret and account for the phenomenon of the marriage between `history' and `contemporary politics' in al- Jahiz's time, and relate his hostile and tendentious anti-Umayyad position plus his views of the Shia to the growing pro-°Abbäsid historiographic activities, and his special brand of Ftizäl. V Much effort has been exerted to extract al-Jähiz's political formula and doctrine by distinguishing his quoted views from his own views. The thesis is also concerned with answering the following questions: What factors underly his pro- Alid and anti-W141 output and were they mutually irreconciliable? How do his pro- Alid writings fit in with his pro-`Abbäsidism and fondness for the charismatic Häshimi stock of Quraysh, what influence had this on his initial Basran (`Uthmäni) milieu and how much can be gained from the totality of his heresiographic scanning in understanding the formative period of Muslim sects? Were al-Jähiz's views constantly bound by the necessity to observe the fluctuating interests of the regime or were they capable of sidestepping those pressures? Were his views on Imäma more concerned with the criteria according to which rulership was acquired or with the manner in which it should be practised? A full literature review is given, with an outline of the method and guidelines followed, difficulties incurred and suggestions for further studies on al-Jähiz. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS IV ABSTRACT OF THESIS V NOTE ON TRANSLITERATION VIII MAIN BODY OF TEXT: - General Outline of the Contents. IX - Detailed Breakdown of the Contents. XIII LIST OF TABLES AND ILLUSTRATIONS XXVI LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS XXVII VOLUME I 1-226 VOLUME II 227-460 VII NOTE ON TRANSLITERATION I have adopted the transliteration system followed in the `Concise Encyclopaediaof Islam' (London: StaceyInternational, 1989), throughout my thesis, except for al-Tä' al-Marbnta,where instead of the ah/atI haveused {a}. Because of the frequency with which they occur, the titles of books in the main text have not been italicised. Titles in footnoteshave been underlined for greater clarity. SomeArabic terms haveeither beenitalicised or bolded for the samepurpose. viii GENERAL OUTLINE OF THE CONTENTS -PART ONE: 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 2 CHAPTER ONE 3 A- Introductory survey of the development of the issue of the Imamate before the `Abbäsid period: I. The Situation in the time of the guided (Räshidün) caliphs. 4 H. The Situation in the time of the Umayyads. 6 B- Introductory survey of the development of the issue of the Imamate [immediately prior to and during the time of al-Jähiz]: I. The Political theory of the cAbbäsids. 12 II. Significance of 'Abbasid Caliphal Titles. 20 III. The Questionof the Imamateduring the `Abbäsid period among: A. Shiites (Proto-Shiite Phenomenon). B. Khärijites. C. Hanbalites (the cult of Mu awiya; Neo-Umayyads).D. Mu`tazilites. 26 -PART TWO: 42 A CHRONOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF AL-JAHIZ'S POLITICAL THOUGHT: CHAPTER TWO: 43 Aims -Literature review: and guidelines. CHAPTER THREE 53 al-Ma'mün's Period I (198-2001813-815) - al-Jawäbät fi al-Imäma, (Wujüb al-Imäma): al-Jdbiz,'s earliestextant political work. CHAPTER FOUR 80 al-Ma'mün's Period II (200-202/815-817) - Magälat al-Zaydiyya wa al-Räfida (Imamatedescribed in Shiite terms;`Ali al-Ridd madeheir-apparent) ix CHAPTER FIVE 110 al-Ma'mnn's Period III (203-211/818-826): al-Jähiz'spolitical survey continued. 1- K. al-Macrifa. 110 2- K. a1`Uthmäniyya 114 3- K. a1°Abbäsiyya. 189 CHAPTER SIX 201 al-Ma'mün's Period IV (211-218/826-833) - Risäla 11 al-Näbita CHAPTER SEVEN 222 Post-Ma'münid Era (a1-Mu`tasim,218-227/833-841) Theological and literary works: 1- Risäla f Nafy al-Tashbih. 223 2- Risäla ft Khalq al-Qur'an. 225 CHAPTER EIGHT 227 al-Wäthiq's period I (227-229/841-843):Political works: 1- Kitäb Fad1 Häshim Calä cAbd Shams. 227 2- Risäla fi Tawib °Ali. 257 CHAPTER NINE 300 al-Wäthiq's period II (229-231/843-845): Literary, political and quasi-scientificworks: 300 1- Madh al-Tujjär. 300 2- Kitäb ai-Tarbic wa al-Tadwir. 3- Early parts of K. al-, Uayawän (1-3). 1 4- Latter portions of K. al- layawän (4-7). Although belongs (chronologically) to chapter ten, below, has been treated here. 333 I Italization of titles denotesa temporary position or a controversial chronological date. X CHAPTER TEN 342 al-Mutawakkil's period I; Last Phaseof I`tizäl (232-236/846-850) 1- Latter K. (4-7) (Above, 333-341 & 343) portions of al-jlayawän . pp. 2- K. al-Futyä (? ). 343 3- Kitäb al-Bukhalä'(? ) 344 4- K. 345 al-Buqän . 5- K. al-Bayän wa al-Tabyin. 349 6- Annex to K. al-Ijayawan: a- al-Qawl F! al-Bighäl. 353 b- K. al-Nisä' c- fl a1-Mucallimjn. } 356 CHAPTER ELEVEN 359 al-Mutawakkil's period II ; Changein al-Mutawakkil's policy: (236/850) Official anti-RdfidI Campaign: } 1- K. Fadl a1-Mu°tazila/a1-Ictizäl 360 2- K. al-Radd `alä Ashäb al-Ilhäm. CHAPTER TWELVE 387 al-Mutawakkil's period III ; Orthodox and Sunni Policy of al-Mutawakkil: decline of I`tizäl (236-247/850-861): 1- K.