SPREADABLE MEDIA, CITIZENS, AND PARTICIPATORY CULTURE: USES AND EFFECTS OF POLITICAL INTERNET MEMES A thesis submitted for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in PSYCHOLOGY by ANNE LEISER Bremen, 31 January, 2019 Supervisors: Prof. Dr. Özen Odağ, Touro College Berlin (Germany) Prof. Dr. Arvid Kappas, Jacobs University Bremen (Germany) Prof. Dr. Nicole Krämer, Universität Duisburg-Essen (Germany) Bremen International Graduate School of Social Sciences POLITICAL INTERNET MEMES "2 POLITICAL INTERNET MEMES "3 Abstract Internet memes, or “artifacts of participatory digital culture” (Wiggins & Bowers, 2015, p. 6), are increasingly visible in political contexts around the world. Appearing in social movements, political campaigns, and everyday discourse, Internet memes are believed to be a tool for people to communicate their personal-political opinions, values, and experiences in a digital public sphere. A study was undertaken to learn more about Internet meme users, by exploring the uses for Internet memes and the effects of Internet meme use in political settings. Drawing on concepts and empirical findings from the fields of memetics, communication science, and political participation research, this project approached Internet memes from a media-psychological perspective. Across three studies, this dissertation presents an exploration of the political relevance of Internet meme use. The first study dealt with the central motives for using Internet memes, and the role that users attribute to political Internet memes. In a Delphi-method interview study with meme experts (n=9) and regular meme users (n=16), participants discussed why they turned to Internet memes. A qualitative content analysis revealed that political meme use is driven by an interplay of self-expression, social identity, and entertainment motives. Participants also concluded that the use of political Internet memes can supplement, but not replace, other political activities. To focus on the political attitudes and behaviors of meme users, the second study used an online survey (N=333) to assess the antecedents and consequences of political Internet meme use. Hierarchical regression analyses showed that the use of political Internet memes can be significantly predicted by political interest and by political meme efficacy, or the belief that memes are an efficacious political activity. Further, meme use significantly predicted higher engagement in conventional and unconventional political activities, even when controlling for POLITICAL INTERNET MEMES "4 political interest. The third study was therefore aimed at uncovering mechanisms of possible mobilizing effects of political Internet meme use. In a controlled laboratory setting, participants (N=104) were randomly assigned into one of three conditions (meme consumption, private meme production, public meme production). Subsequent prosocial behavior tendencies (donating to a charity and signing up for a newsletter) were not found to differ across the conditions, although marginally significant interaction effects related to cost were found, along with a result related to a measure of selfish tendencies. Implications of the overall results and recommendations for future research are discussed. POLITICAL INTERNET MEMES "5 Acknowledgements This path was not one I embarked on alone. For the completion of this thesis I would like to thank… … my supervisors, for the expertise and guidance; … my family, for having my back; … my friends, for bringing me joy; … my neighbors, for taking care of the dog; … the BIGSSS community, especially Franzi, for the support; … my colleagues, for sharing the pain; … Hannah, Dora, David, and other kind souls, for providing feedback on this text; … Christian, for being there. POLITICAL INTERNET MEMES "6 POLITICAL INTERNET MEMES "7 Table of Contents Abstract Acknowledgements List of Tables ...........................................................................................................................................11 1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................................................13 2 Internet memes .....................................................................................................................................17 2.1 Memes, memetics, and virals....................................................................................................... 17 2.2 Internet memes and politics .........................................................................................................23 2.3 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................27 3 Politics, entertainment, and the media .................................................................................................29 3.1 Political entertainment media ......................................................................................................29 3.1.1 Political entertainment in print and television .....................................................................31 3.1.2 Social media and user-generated content ............................................................................35 3.2 Media uses and effects .................................................................................................................37 3.2.1 Understanding versus entertainment ...................................................................................37 3.2.2 Mechanisms of political entertainment effects ....................................................................39 3.2.3 Political entertainment effects .............................................................................................40 3.3 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................43 4 Political participation ...........................................................................................................................45 4.1 Defining political participation ....................................................................................................45 4.2 Participation in the Internet era.................................................................................................... 49 4.3 Internet effects .............................................................................................................................52 4.3.1 Mobilization hypothesis ......................................................................................................53 4.3.2 Slacktivism hypothesis ........................................................................................................57 POLITICAL INTERNET MEMES "8 4.3.3 Diversification hypothesis ...................................................................................................60 4.3.4 Future avenues for participation research ............................................................................63 4.4 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................65 5 Research questions and research design ..............................................................................................67 6 Study 1: Motives for using political Internet memes ...........................................................................73 6.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................73 6.2 Internet memes and politics .........................................................................................................75 6.3 Uses and gratifications of user-generated content .......................................................................78 6.4 Political humor and infotainment ................................................................................................81 6.5 Overview of the study ..................................................................................................................83 6.6 Method .........................................................................................................................................84 6.6.1 Participants ..........................................................................................................................84 6.6.2 Procedure .............................................................................................................................85 6.6.3 Analysis ...............................................................................................................................86 6.7 Results .........................................................................................................................................87 6.7.1 Dimension 1: Motives for using Internet memes ................................................................87 6.7.1.1 Self-expression ............................................................................................................88 6.7.1.2 Social identity ..............................................................................................................90 6.7.1.3 Entertainment ..............................................................................................................92 6.7.2 Dimension 2: The potential of political Internet memes .....................................................93