The Biology of Lupinus L. (lupin or lupine) Photograph courtesy of Alan Meldrum, Pulse Australia Version 1: April 2013 This document provides an overview of baseline biological information relevant to risk assessment of genetically modified forms of the species that may be released into the Australian environment. For information on the Australian Government Office of the Gene Technology Regulator visit <http://www.ogtr.gov.au> The Biology of Lupinus L. (lupin or lupine) Office of the Gene Technology Regulator The Biology of Lupinus L. (Lupin or Lupine) Office of the Gene Technology Regulator TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................................ 1 PREAMBLE ................................................................................................................................................... 3 SECTION 1 TAXONOMY ...................................................................................................................... 3 SECTION 2 ORIGIN AND CULTIVATION ......................................................................................... 4 2.1 CENTRE OF DIVERSITY AND DOMESTICATION ............................................................ 4 2.2 COMMERCIAL USES ................................................................................................. 5 2.3 CULTIVATION IN AUSTRALIA ................................................................................... 6 2.3.1 Commercial propagation ........................................................................... 8 2.3.2 Scale of cultivation .................................................................................... 8 2.3.3 Cultivation practices ................................................................................. 9 2.4 CROP IMPROVEMENT ............................................................................................. 10 2.4.1 Breeding .................................................................................................. 10 2.4.2 Genetic modification ................................................................................ 11 SECTION 3 MORPHOLOGY .............................................................................................................. 13 3.1 PLANT MORPHOLOGY ............................................................................................ 13 3.1.1 Root ........................................................................................................ 14 3.1.2 Stem ......................................................................................................... 14 3.1.3 Leaf ......................................................................................................... 14 3.2 REPRODUCTIVE MORPHOLOGY ............................................................................... 14 SECTION 4 DEVELOPMENT ............................................................................................................. 15 4.1 REPRODUCTION..................................................................................................... 15 4.1.1 Asexual reproduction ............................................................................... 15 4.1.2 Sexual reproduction ................................................................................. 16 4.2 POLLINATION AND POLLEN DISPERSAL ................................................................... 17 4.3 SEED DEVELOPMENT AND SEED DISPERSAL ............................................................. 18 4.3.1 Seed development ..................................................................................... 18 4.3.2 Seed dispersal .......................................................................................... 18 4.4 SEED DORMANCY AND GERMINATION..................................................................... 19 4.5 VEGETATIVE GROWTH ........................................................................................... 20 SECTION 5 BIOCHEMISTRY............................................................................................................. 21 5.1 NUTRIENT COMPONENTS OF THE LUPIN SEED .......................................................... 21 5.1.1 Proteins and amino acids ......................................................................... 22 5.1.2 Carbohydrates ......................................................................................... 22 5.1.3 Lipids ....................................................................................................... 23 5.2 TOXINS ................................................................................................................. 23 5.2.1 Alkaloids .................................................................................................. 23 5.2.2 Phomopsins.............................................................................................. 24 5.3 ALLERGENS .......................................................................................................... 25 5.4 OTHER UNDESIRABLE PHYTOCHEMICALS ................................................................ 25 5.4.1 Soluble polysaccharides and oligosaccharides .......................................... 26 5.4.2 Phytic acid ............................................................................................... 26 5.4.3 Saponins .................................................................................................. 26 5.5 BENEFICIAL PHYTOCHEMICALS .............................................................................. 26 SECTION 6 ABIOTIC INTERACTIONS ............................................................................................ 27 6.1 ABIOTIC STRESSES................................................................................................. 27 6.1.1 Nutrient stress .......................................................................................... 27 6.1.2 Temperature stress ................................................................................... 28 6.1.3 Water stress ............................................................................................. 29 6.1.4 Other stresses........................................................................................... 30 6.2 ABIOTIC TOLERANCES ........................................................................................... 30 1 The Biology of Lupinus L. (Lupin or Lupine) Office of the Gene Technology Regulator SECTION 7 BIOTIC INTERACTIONS ............................................................................................... 30 7.1 WEEDS ................................................................................................................. 30 7.2 PESTS AND DISEASES ............................................................................................. 31 7.2.1 Pests ....................................................................................................... 31 7.2.2 Diseases .................................................................................................. 32 7.3 OTHER BIOTIC INTERACTIONS ................................................................................ 33 SECTION 8 WEEDINESS .................................................................................................................... 33 8.1 WEEDINESS STATUS ON A GLOBAL SCALE ............................................................... 33 8.2 WEEDINESS STATUS IN AUSTRALIA ........................................................................ 34 8.2.1 Weediness in agricultural ecosystems ....................................................... 34 8.2.2 Weediness in natural ecosystems .............................................................. 35 8.3 CONTROL MEASURES ............................................................................................. 35 SECTION 9 POTENTIAL FOR VERTICAL GENE TRANSFER ...................................................... 36 9.1 INTRASPECIFIC CROSSING ...................................................................................... 36 9.2 NATURAL INTERSPECIFIC CROSSING ....................................................................... 36 9.3 CROSSING UNDER EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS....................................................... 37 9.3.1 Crossing among New World species ......................................................... 37 9.3.2 Crossing among Old World species .......................................................... 37 9.3.3 Intergeneric crossing................................................................................ 38 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................. 39 APPENDICES............................................................................................................................................... 61 2 The Biology of Lupinus L. (Lupin or Lupine) Office of the Gene Technology Regulator PREAMBLE This document describes the biology of Lupinus L., with particular reference to the Australian environment, cultivation and use. Information included relates to the taxonomy and origins of cultivated Lupinus species, general descriptions of their morphology, reproductive biology, biochemistry, and biotic and abiotic interactions. This document also addresses the potential for gene transfer to closely related species. The purpose of this document