THE CONFUCIUS INSTITUTES AND CHINA’S EVOLVING FOREIGN POLICY A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in Political Science by Stephen J. Hoare-Vance University of Canterbury 2009 ABSTRACT The Confucius Institutes (CIs) are part of a major new Chinese Government initiative promoting the learning of the Chinese language and culture internationally. They operate through a network of institutes located in learning institutions around the world, and while they have an education focus, they also reflect political changes in China’s relationship with the rest of the world. A transformation in China’s approach to foreign relations has been evident since the belligerence and self-sufficiency of the Mao era, and cautious engagement of the Deng era. In the early 21st century, China’s new foreign policy is more confident and engaged behaviour than it has ever been. The conceptual sources of China’s foreign policy have broadened from Marxism-Leninism to include some contemporary international values and traditional Chinese norms. However, managing the sphere of ideas both domestically and externally, and securing the nation’s economic development, are the main means the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) maintains its legitimacy in the early 21st century. While China’s leadership has given the CIs considerable political independence, they are part of the Party’s propaganda system. Despite some foreign concerns about the Confucius Institutes being a propaganda tool, many other countries have similar programmes; the difference is China’s political system. Through the CIs, China is building the architecture of a major power, and has succeeded in improving its international influence. But because of the lack of international attractiveness of China’s political system, this is likely to be slow. The CIs reflect a more confident and effective Chinese foreign policy; and one that offers greater opportunities for engagement. 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The corollary of having a supervisor that has high standards and who cares about what their students write, means that the student has to work hard to meet those standards! I had not heard of the Confucius Institutes when I was invited to be part of Associate Professor Anne-Marie Brady’s Marsden-funded project on propaganda in contemporary China, and her direction of my research has had a major influence on both this thesis and on my education about China. The timelines we agreed on helped me – even if I got behind on them! The common sense feedback from my secondary supervisor Dr. Jeremy Moses is also appreciated. I take the sentiments of former Vietcong leader Tran Van Tra who said “If you have achieved something, it is due to the help of others” when he wrote about Vietnam’s path (at great cost) to political independence,1 because there are many other people who helped me along my research journey. Dr. He Yong, a visiting scholar as part of Dr. Brady’s project also helped me understand things from a resident Chinese perspective that I would not have been aware of otherwise, and I also sought the opinions of PhD student James To throughout my thesis. Tadasi Iwami was an inspiration with his dedication to his Master’s thesis. When I returned to Canterbury University in 2006, an advisor mentioned to me that many students did not recognise the support services available to them, so I set about making the most of those services available. From the Library, Angela Davies helped me with the bibliographic software Endnote, and Sean Lowery from Information Communication and Technology Services and Dr. Mike Dickenson from the Learning Skills Centre both helped me with Microsoft Word. I also had valuable assistance from staff and students of the Chinese programme of the School of Languages and Cultures. Support from the School of Social and Political Sciences enabled me to attend several conferences, including “Institutionalisation and the Great Transformation of China” at Victoria University Wellington in April 2009 which enabled me to meet colleagues working in similar fields. Thanks to the influence of Department Secretary Jill Dolby, and to the other staff and students who contributed to a positive environment. Outside of the university, I could not have begun university study without financial support from my parents, and my wider family who were always there. My thanks to 1 Quoted in Nu Tang Truong, Journal of a Vietcong (London Cape, 1986). p. 174. 3 Studylink and the Marsden Fund for their valuable financial assistance. I also met a number of people in various groups, and their engagement helped me. This thesis has taken substantial input from others and I hope it gives back a contribution to the field. Stephen Hoare-Vance, Canterbury University October 2009. 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ................................................................................................ 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.......................................................................... 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................. 5 Table of Figures ........................................................................................... 7 Table of Tables............................................................................................. 8 Chapter One................................................................................................. 9 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 9 Background............................................................................................ 9 Literature review .................................................................................. 13 What isn’t known ................................................................................. 16 Thesis statement ................................................................................... 17 Why are these issues important?............................................................ 17 Research sources .................................................................................. 19 Thesis outline ....................................................................................... 19 Chapter Two .............................................................................................. 23 FROM EXPORTING REVOLUTION TO EXPORTING CULTURE......... 23 Introduction.......................................................................................... 23 Foreign affairs behaviour ...................................................................... 24 The Mao era......................................................................................... 25 Post 1978: The Reform and Open era.................................................... 27 China’s “peaceful rise” ......................................................................... 31 Result of the evolution: China as an active international player .............. 32 Chinese language promotion to foreigners............................................. 34 Rejection and rise of Confucianism....................................................... 38 Conclusion ........................................................................................... 41 Chapter Three ............................................................................................ 44 THEORIES OF POWER, CULTURE AND DIPLOMACY........................ 44 Introduction.......................................................................................... 44 The (in)tangibility of power resources in the contemporary era .............. 45 Soft Power............................................................................................ 49 Public Diplomacy................................................................................. 56 Theory of Chinese foreign policy .......................................................... 63 Conclusion ........................................................................................... 64 Chapter Four .............................................................................................. 66 POLITICAL INFLUENCE AND THE CONFUCIUS INSTITUTES .......... 66 Introduction.......................................................................................... 66 International comparisons of cultural diplomacy.................................... 68 China’s Party-State system.................................................................... 75 Governance of the Confucius Institutes ................................................. 80 Conclusion ........................................................................................... 87 Chapter Five............................................................................................... 89 A TOOL FOR SUBVERSION OR A GOODWILL GESTURE? ................ 89 Introduction.......................................................................................... 89 Criticisms relating to universities .......................................................... 90 Cultural and linguistic concerns .......................................................... 100 Propaganda or public diplomacy?........................................................ 104 Positive contributions ......................................................................... 111 Conclusion ......................................................................................... 113 5 Chapter Six .............................................................................................