The Educator’s Guide to Linguistics The Educator’s Guide to Linguistics Tatiana Gordon Hofstra University INFORMATION AGE PUBLISHING, INC. Charlotte, NC • www.infoagepub.com Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Gordon, Tatiana, 1956- The educator’s guide to linguistics / Tatiana Gordon. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-1-61735-880-7 (pbk.) -- ISBN 978-1-61735-881-4 -- ISBN 978-1-61735-882-1 (e-book) 1. Linguistics--Study and teaching--Textbooks. 2. Language and languages--Study and teaching--Textbooks. I. Title. P53.412.G66 2012 410--dc23 2012020190 Copyright © 2012 Information Age Publishing Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher. Printed in the United States of America Contents Preface ........................................................................................... ix 1 The Uniqueness of Language ......................................................... 1 Semiotic Properties of Language .................................................... 1 The Language Instinct ..................................................................... 6 The Critical Period Hypothesis ....................................................... 6 Universal Grammar Hypothesis ...................................................... 8 Nicaraguan Sign Language and the Creolization of Pidgins ....... 9 The Origins of Language ............................................................... 11 Implications for Instruction ........................................................... 12 Words to Remember ....................................................................... 12 Notes ................................................................................................ 13 2 Speech Sounds ...............................................................................15 Phonetics and Phonology ............................................................... 15 Initiation, Articulation, and Voicing ............................................. 16 Consonants ...................................................................................... 17 Vowels .............................................................................................. 19 Pronunciation Challenges .............................................................. 21 Phonemes and Allophones ............................................................. 22 Phonotactics .................................................................................... 24 Stress and Rhythm .......................................................................... 26 Words to Remember ....................................................................... 29 Implications for Instruction ........................................................... 29 v vi Contents 3 Grammar .......................................................................................33 Morphology ..................................................................................... 33 Fusion .............................................................................................. 36 Agglutination .................................................................................. 36 Isolating Languages ........................................................................ 38 Incorporation .................................................................................. 39 Transfix Languages ........................................................................ 40 Syntax .............................................................................................. 41 Descriptive and Prescriptive Grammars ....................................... 44 Implications for Instruction ........................................................... 45 Words to Remember ....................................................................... 46 Notes ................................................................................................ 47 4 Semantics ...................................................................................... 49 Semantic Triangle ........................................................................... 49 Gestalt Theory of Meaning ............................................................ 50 Prototype Effect .............................................................................. 52 Conceptual Metaphors ................................................................... 54 The Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis ............................................ 56 Words in Context ............................................................................ 59 Implications for Instruction ........................................................... 61 Words to Remember ....................................................................... 62 Notes ................................................................................................ 63 5 Pragmatics .................................................................................... 65 Speech Acts ..................................................................................... 66 Speech-Act Variety Across Languages ........................................... 67 Conversational Routines ................................................................ 70 The Meaning of Speech Acts ......................................................... 71 Meta-Pragmatic Knowledge ........................................................... 72 Pragmatic Competence .................................................................. 72 Implications for Instruction ........................................................... 75 Words to Remember ....................................................................... 76 Notes ................................................................................................ 77 6 Neurolinguistics ............................................................................79 Lateralization and Localization .................................................... 80 Contents vii Brain Circuitry in Bilinguals ......................................................... 84 Co-Speech Gestures ....................................................................... 85 Mirror Neurons ............................................................................... 87 Implications for Instruction ........................................................... 88 Words to Remember ....................................................................... 89 Notes ................................................................................................ 90 7 First-Language Acquisition ........................................................... 93 Early Sounds .................................................................................... 94 Early Words ..................................................................................... 96 Learning Grammar ...................................................................... 100 The Role of Caretakers ................................................................. 103 Implications for Instruction ......................................................... 105 Words to Remember ..................................................................... 106 Notes .............................................................................................. 107 8 Second-Language Acquisition .....................................................109 The Silent Period and the Rejection Period ............................... 109 Language Transfer and Contrastive Analysis ..............................110 Creative Construction and Interlanguage ...................................111 Morpheme-Order Studies ............................................................ 112 Ultimate Attainment .................................................................... 113 Linguistic Intuition .......................................................................114 Fossilization ....................................................................................114 Fundamental Difference Hypothesis .......................................... 115 L2 Teaching Methodology ........................................................... 115 Corrective Feedback and Formal Grammar Instruction ............118 L2 Lexicon..................................................................................... 120 Implications for Instruction ......................................................... 121 Words to Remember ..................................................................... 122 Notes .............................................................................................. 124 9 Language Variation .....................................................................127 Regional and Ethnic Variation: The Example of American English .............................................................. 129 Social Variation: The Example of India ...................................... 132 Social Variation: The Example of American English ................ 133 Gender Variation: The Example of Japan .................................. 134 viii Contents Gender Variation: The Example of American English .............. 136 Linguistic Prestige and Accommodation .................................... 137 Implications for Instruction ........................................................