A Study of the Supernatural in Twenty-first-century Young Adult Gothic Literature Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Northampton 2019 Meriem Rayen Lamara © [Meriem Rayen Lamara] [2019 (Doctor of Philosophy)]. This thesis is copyright material and no quotation from it may be published without proper acknowledgement. i Abstract The field of Gothic studies is an ever-evolving one, and while existing critical studies have approached the Gothic through various thematic, cultural, and political concerns, little attention has been paid to the Gothic in Young Adult literature (YA), and specifically to the portrayal of the supernatural in twenty-first-century YA Gothic literature. This thesis fills this gap through close analysis of a selection of YA Gothic novels and by drawing from a variety of interdisciplinary sources, including mythology, folklore, fairy tales, and earlier Gothic texts. Central to this thesis is the understanding of the shifting representation of the supernatural as well as the Gothic and as such, over four chapters, this thesis traces the evolution of the supernatural, focusing primarily on what I refer to as the ‘supernatural Other’ in Gothic literature. Accordingly, it begins by an exploration of the rise of the supernatural Gothic, considering a spectrum of earlier Gothic narratives from the eighteenth, nineteenth, and twentieth centuries. This thesis demonstrates that the portrayal of the supernatural has always been defined in terms of experimentation, re-imaginings, and the authors’ original approach to the supernatural. The supernatural Other is indeed a hybrid, created from the fusion of myths, folklore, and fairy tales. The study then analyses a range of twenty-first-century YA Gothic texts that offer a re-evaluation of supernatural beings who have been represented as monsters. I consider how such beings embody the societal and cultural fears and anxieties of particular times; the vampire in particular has often been read as a reflection of such anxieties. ii The Gothic’s concern with Otherness as well as the portrayal of supernatural beings as the ultimate Others and the personification of the uncanny, is central to the YA Gothic narratives examined in this thesis. However, the thesis argues that while the YA Gothic’s supernatural Other is often portrayed as dangerous and as a threat destabilizing the set geographical and physiological boundaries as well as the prevalent cultural norms, values and morals of the time, it is also represented as sublime and desirable. The thesis concludes by examining the role of the supernatural in the development of the heroines of YA Gothic and suggests that supernatural Otherness becomes a medium of empowerment for the heroines who embrace it, allowing them to renegotiate their position within their socio-cultural environment, and thus reflecting social and cultural shifts in how gender is represented and understood. It is hoped through the discussion in this thesis to further the critical debate about twenty-first-century YA Gothic. iii Acknowledgements The crafting of this thesis is only made possible by the invaluable guidance of my supervisory team. I am deeply grateful to my supervisors Dr. Phillippa Bennett and Dr. Gerri Kimber for their advice, and their patience while reading countless versions of my chapters, and for their enthusiasm for this project, which has encouraged me immensely and made the writing of this thesis a hugely enjoyable experience. Thanks are also due to my Director of Studies, Pr. Richard Canning, for his encouraging comments and his guidance over the last few years. I would also like to thank Dr. Sonya Andermahr for her guidance during the first year of this project, and the Graduate School at the University of Northampton for their support. I also wish to thank the Algerian Ministry of Higher Education for funding the first three years of this project; it would not have been possible to start this research without the scholarship offered to me. I am also grateful to my follow doctoral student, housemate for four years, and best friend, Bochra Benaissa, who has supported me along the way. In addition, I am grateful to the members of the YA Literature community, YALMCa, and Dr. Leah Phillips for their enthusiasm and all the inspiring discussions. Last but not least, the most special thanks go to my family who has inspired me and supported me in every step of this journey. Papa, Mama, Doria, Sandra, I would not have done it without your love and support, and all those long late-night video calls. Thank you for encouraging me to always give my best and never give up. To my late grandparents: you have instilled in me a love for the supernatural through your enchanting stories. Thank you for inspiring me to write this thesis. iv Table of Contents Abstract ......................................................................................................................... i Acknowledgements .................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents........................................................................................................ iv Introduction YA Gothic, Gothic YA: Crossing Boundaries ............................................................ 1 Chapter One The Supernatural Gothic: A Concise History .............................................................. 10 The Spectacular, the Explained Supernatural, and the Demonic Supernatural ......... 12 Nineteenth-Century Supernaturalism ........................................................................ 28 Twentieth-Century Supernatural Horror ................................................................... 36 Twenty-first Century YA Gothic ............................................................................... 39 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 43 Chapter Two From the Shadows: The Supernatural Other from Folklore to YA Gothic Literature of the Twenty-First Century .......................................................................................... 46 The Origins of Vampires and Shapeshifters in Mythology and Folklore.................. 48 From the Depths of Myths and Folklore to Gothic Literature ................................... 59 Tales of Wonder and the Gothic ................................................................................ 92 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 103 v Chapter Three “It’s A Monster’s World”: Redeeming the Supernatural Other.............................. 105 For You Are Everywhere: Monsters and Borders ................................................... 114 ‘Some Angels Are Destined to Fall’: The Angel as the Enemy .............................. 135 ‘Monsters, Monsters, Big and Small’: Monsters Within ......................................... 140 A New Age of Monsters .......................................................................................... 146 ‘We Are All Made of Stardust’: Moral Monsters.................................................... 150 Uncanny Yet Sublime .............................................................................................. 162 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 166 Chapter Four The Many Faces of the Twenty-First-Century YA Gothic Heroine......................... 170 The ‘Victimised’ Persecuted Gothic Heroine of Earlier Gothic Literature ............. 172 The Gothic Heroine, Family Dynamics, and the Supernatural ................................ 182 ‘Not Your Little Girl’: Negotiating the Mother-Daughter Relationship ................. 193 The Gothic Heroine, Tyrannical Fathers, and Incestuous Brothers ........................ 202 Losing the Self: Other Identities in the Embrace of the Supernatural ..................... 209 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 226 Conclusion Embracing Otherness ............................................................................................... 230 Bibliography .................................................................................................................. 243 1 Introduction YA Gothic, Gothic YA: Crossing Boundaries In contemporary Western culture, the Gothic lurks in all sorts of unexpected corners. —Catherine Spooner, Contemporary Gothic The aim of this thesis is to explore the representation of the supernatural Other in twenty- first-century Young Adult Gothic literature (hereafter YA literature/fiction). In the last two decades, the field of Gothic Literary Studies has witnessed a remarkable surge of critical and scholarly examinations of the Gothic in various forms and media. In twenty- first-century YA literature, in particular, the Gothic is thriving. Indeed, a great number of Gothic narratives written and marketed for a young adult audience, and featuring adolescents as the main protagonists are published every year. Despite this, however, the field of YA Gothic literature is notable for its lack of scholarship. Thus, this research seeks to examine the twenty-first-century YA Gothic. Through an examination of what I term ‘the supernatural Other’, I am interested primarily in the evolution of the portrayal of the supernatural. I argue that there