Thomas Middleton’s Middle Way: Political Irony and Jacobean Drama by Mark Kaethler A Thesis presented to the University of Guelph In partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Literary/Theatre Studies in English Guelph, Ontario, Canada © Mark Kaethler, January, 2016 ABSTRACT THOMAS MIDDLETON’S MIDDLE WAY: POLITICAL IRONY AND JACOBEAN DRAMA Mark Kaethler Advisor: Co-Advisor: University of Guelph, 2016 Mark Fortier Paul Mulholland The dissertation examines Thomas Middleton’s political irony in his drama. It differentiates this irony from the broad phrase “Middletonian irony” or the various kinds of irony featured in his oeuvre by observing its connection to what Sir Francis Bacon calls a “crossroads,” which produces opera basilica—works for the monarch to resolve. Middleton and Rowley’s definition of ironia in The World Tossed at Tennis (1620) in which the eye looks “two ways at once” positions the envisioned royal audience at such a crossroads. In doing so, Middleton and Rowley revise rhetorical definitions of irony that promote an inferred meaning which trumps literal interpretations; they instead favour a third meaning with their analogy of the tailor who stitches two previous habits into a new fashion with his needle. Rulers are thus encouraged to abandon singular, entrenched political habits in favour of new and mutually constituted fashions of governance. The course to which Middleton directs rulers and audiences here and elsewhere resembles the tradition of the via media with its projected balance, but its remaining tension infuses that outcome with the ongoing oscillation of the via diversa. In this manner Middleton’s political irony expands upon Bacon’s idea of “perpetual renovation” by seeing governance as a theatrical continuum of historical emulation and revision. By resisting the permanence and centrality of authority, my work presents responses to recent studies in political theology, which uphold the superiority of the monarch, and to Middleton criticism’s conflicted prescription of either a deliberate intention on the author’s part (moral or satirical) or a complete dissolution of meaning. Instead, Middleton uses a didactic allegorical framework that is politically charged but remains ridden with tension. The dissertation’s first two chapters observe opera basilica intended for the newly appointed monarch, James I, in The Phoenix (1603-4) and the Lord Mayor of London in The Triumphs of Truth (1613). The final two chapters examine the ways in which Middleton’s opera basilica gradually transform into burgeoning citizen politics with The World Tossed at Tennis and his final play A Game at Chess (1624). Although Middleton’s message remains equivocal, it is unequivocally political. Acknowledgements First and foremost, a great debt is owed to Paul Mulholland whose knowledge, guidance, and teachings frame this dissertation. I am immensely thankful for his efforts to instil the values of academic integrity and precision as well as a keen attention to detail. Paul has shared his passion for Middleton, early modern print culture, and the theatre with me in many conversations that have augmented my own appreciation for and understanding of these subjects. This dissertation has benefited from his painstaking efforts to improve my writing, which in turn have advanced the quality of my own students’ craft. Only Viviana Comensoli matches his editorial talents, and she has also gone to commendable lengths to help me to become a better writer. I am particularly grateful to Viviana for her extremely generous level of involvement in this project. As a faculty member from outside of the University of Guelph who, like Paul, carried on with this work after retirement, Viviana has demonstrated a duty to the profession and to this student that goes above and beyond anyone’s expectations, especially given the level of engagement and direction she has provided. While I have no problems with expressing my gratitude, I have found it difficult in the past to express what I mean to say in a scholarly vein. In this capacity, I thank Mark Fortier for helping me to find and articulate my critical voice. His unwavering support coupled with a constant attention to scholarly rigour has provided the necessary encouragement to see this project through to completion. Graduate school can be a difficult time, so I would also like to thank him and his partner Debra Miller for offering their house, coffee, and company in the years leading up to this moment. James Doelman’s ability to look two ways at once (to Middleton and to James) made him an excellent external examiner whose insights will prove extremely valuable in seeing this work forward. I thank all my committee members for their patience, perseverance, and dedication to improving my dissertation and my abilities as a iv scholar. If I have failed to follow Truth at any point, causing me to shipwreck upon the shores of Error, please know that it is my fault rather than theirs. I would like to thank my family for their support, especially my mother (Diane) my father (Alfred), and my brother (Simon), who, even if they do not read past these acknowledgements, have provided the constant emotional support I needed to complete this work. As long as I can remember, you three have been adamant pillars of love in my life, and you always will be. I have been blessed as well with a broader sense of family, and in that spirit I would like to thank the Ryans, the Orrs, the Thomases, the Neases, the Rutiglianos, the Tomes, the Derkses, the Pittaways, and my former roommates Colin Anderson and Leslie Frattolin, all of whom have proven that home extends beyond your doorstep and have shown me a love that approximates family during this time. To Molly, Jack, Toby, Buddy, and Sophie for companionship (pace: Donna Haraway). To Michael Andrew Brough, Christie Menzo, Jordan Hanna, Chris Vanderwees, Andrew Connolly, Coplen Rose, Meg Watkins, Serge Laforest, Ashley Irwin, Michael Raby, Adam Hammond, Emma Gorst, Heather Hillsburg, Rob Baldwin, and Jim Lees, thanks for listening, for your kindness, and for your friendship. To my fellow graduate students over the years, even those with whom I have disagreed, I have valued our conversations and time together. Thank you for helping me to grow; I hope I have done you a similar service. A particular note of gratitude is accorded to Mauricio Martinez and Jessica Riley, who have served as models of academic excellence during my time at Guelph, as well as to Mirali Almaula, Robert Ian Samuel T Zero Jones, Paul Watkins, Cynthia Ing, Brian Lefresne, Leslie Allin, the trivia team, and the breakfast club, not only for their collegial support but also for their friendship. Special recognition is reserved for Alec Follett, who provided a second set of eyes to v the final draft of this work, served as my devoted “writing buddy” for the majority of this thesis, and was (and continues to be) a wonderful person to be around. This dissertation could not have been completed without the financial support of the College of Arts, the University of Guelph, the School of English and Theatre Studies, the province of Ontario’s Graduate Scholarship program, and Ted Morwick. I acknowledge that portions of this work are reproduced from a publication for Upstart, and I am thankful to Will Stockton and Clemson University for allowing me to republish those ideas. I have been privileged to teach four courses during my time at Guelph. I thank my students for the terrific energy, enthusiasm, creativity, and critical thinking they have shared with me; I hope I have taught you as much as you have taught me. Although I am thankful to my department as a whole for all the good conversations over the years, special recognition is accorded to Julie Cairnie, Ric Knowles, Michael Keefer, Marianne Micros, and Gregor Campbell for taking part in my journey and offering excellent counsel along the way; to Stephen Powell and Daniel O’Quinn for their lessons in scholarship and pedagogy, which have shaped my own practices; to Jade Ferguson and Susan Brown for their commitment to assisting me in my professional development, despite never having had any official obligation to do so; to Phyllis Reynen, Olga Petrik, Yvonne Yates, and Michael Boterman for helping out with every little thing that ended up being so important; and to Alan Filewod for always having an open door and for giving me the confidence to continue when I really needed it. My determination is also the result of sustained dialogue with the faculty of my alma mater, especially Batia Stolar, Douglas Ivison, Doug Hayes, Scott Pound, and Mike Richardson. My interest in Middleton began in an MA graduate course with Rachel Warburton. Thank you, Rachel, for being the first to spark this idea, to teach me how to teach, and to inspire me to counter singular outlooks to the world. vi Dedication It may seem odd to dedicate a study of irony to someone I love so unequivocally, but Katie Ryan has seen me through every day that went into producing the full drafts of this dissertation and has carried me over every hurdle along the way. She has been a constant and brilliant source of inspiration during times of doubt, a hand when I needed to be held, and a voice when I lost mine, as well as a devoted and compassionate partner. Someone once told me that people in relationships should be like trees: close enough to support one another during strong gusts. All I can say is that I count myself extremely lucky to have found the strongest tree, and I strive every day to give you “the same,” Katie: quos amor verus tenuit tenebit.