Notes INTRODUCTION 1. See Elliott West, “Selling of the Myth: Western Images in Advertising,” Wanted Dead or Alive: The American West in Popular Culture, ed. Richard Aquila (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1996), 283. 2. Regarding this campaign, see, for instance, Loren Stein, “How to Fight Big Tobacco and Win,” A Healthy Me, 2001 Consumer Health Interactive, June 10, 2009, http://www.ahealthyme.com/topic/bigtobacco. 3. See Henry Nash Smith, Virgin Land: The American West as Symbol and Myth (1950; Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978); Leslie Fiedler, The Return of the Vanishing American (New York: Stein and Day, 1968); Richard Slotkin, Regeneration Through Violence: The Mythology of the American Frontier, 1600–1860 (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1973); Slotkin, The Fatal Environment: The Myth of the Frontier in the Age of Industrialization, 1800–1890 (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1985); Slotkin, Gunfighter Nation: The Myth of the Frontier in Twentieth- Century America (New York: Atheneum, 1992); Annette Kolodny, The Lay of the Land: Metaphor as Experience and History in American Life and Letters (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1975); John G. Cawelti, The Six-Gun Mystique, 2nd ed. (Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1984); Jane Tompkins, West of Everything: The Inner Life of Westerns (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992). 4. For instance, see Smith; Fiedler; Slotkin, Regeneration Through Violence; Kolodny. 5. For instance, see Smith again; Cawelti; Tompkins; Slotkin, Gunfighter Nation. 6. Stuart Wallace Hyde, “The Representation of the West in American Drama from 1849 to 1917,” diss., Stanford, 1954. 7. Rosemarie Katherine Bank, “Rhetorical, Dramatic, Theatrical, and Social Contexts of Selected American Frontier Plays, 1871 to 1906,” diss., University of Iowa, 1972. 210 Notes 8. Bank, 6. 9. Roger A. Hall, Performing the American Frontier, 1870–1906 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001). 10. Discussing this turn- of- the- century popular melodrama, especially of “the 10. 20. 30.” variety, Montrose J. Moses referred specifically to the American Theatre on Eighth Avenue and the Thalia Theatre in the Bowery. See, The American Dramatist (Boston: Little, 1925; New York: Benjamin Blom, 1964), 298. 11. See Hall, Chapter 6, “Dominance: 1899–1906,” 186–225. 12. For instance, see Patricia Nelson Limerick, The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West (New York: Norton, 1987), and Richard White, “It’s Your Misfortune and None of My Own”: A New History of the American West (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991). 13. Robert Rogers, Ponteach: Or the Savages of America, A Tragedy, with an in- troduction and a biography of the author by Allan Nevins (Chicago: Caxton Club, 1914), 201. 14. Slotkin, Regeneration Through Violence, 235. 15. The significance of Pocahontas for the early American sense of national iden- tity is explored in Susan Scheckel, “Domesticating the Drama of Conquest: Pocahontas on the Popular Stage,” in The Insistence of the Indian: Race and Nationalism in Nineteenth-Century American Culture (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998), 41–69. 16. Richard Moody, America Takes the Stage: Romanticism in American Drama and Theatre, 1750–1900 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1955), 105. 17. The complex relation between the representation of the Native American in Euro- American culture and the “true nature” of Native Americans is the sub- ject of landmark studies like Roy Harvey Pearce, Savagism and Civilization: A Study of the Indian and the American Mind (Baltimore: John Hopkins Press, 1953, 1965) and Robert F. Berkhofer, Jr., The White Man’s Indian: Images of the American Indian from Columbus to the Present (New York: Vintage Books, 1979). In this regard, also see Rosemary K. Bank, “Staging the ‘Native’: Making History in American Theatre Culture, 1828–1838,” Theatre Journal 45.4 (1993), 461–486, and Bank, “Representing History: Performing the Columbian Exposition,” Theatre Journal 54.4 (2002), 589–606. 18. Pearce suggests that playwrights like Stone were actually caught between two traditions. On the one hand, his Metamora embodied elements of the Noble Savage, the product of the romantic “primitivistic literary tradition”; on the other, Stone incorporated into his play elements of the savagism tradition, which held that the Indian was the product of an inferior stage in the devel- opment of the human race (176–78). 19. For instance, see Arthur Hobson Quinn, A History of the American Drama: From the Civil War to the Present Day, vol. I (New York: Appleton- Century- Crofts, Inc., 1936), 105; Moody, 174. Notes 211 20. At least this was the view of audiences in the 1830s. In this regard, see James Tidwell’s introduction to James Kirke Paulding, The Lion of the West, revised by John Augustus Stone and William Bayle Bernard and edited by James N. Tidwell (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1954), 7–8. 21. Hyde, 29. 22. In “The Representation of the West in American Drama from 1849 to 1917,” Stuart Wallace Hyde has documented the increase of Western plays in the years after 1870 by charting the number of Western plays written each year between 1849 and 1917 (see Chart #1, p. 433). Hyde discusses the increase of Western plays after 1870 on pages 186–89. Also see Bank, “Rhetorical, Dramatic, Theatrical, and Social Contexts,” 2, 105–06, 148–50, and Hall, 16–20. 23. In this regard, see Rosemarie Bank, “Frontier Melodrama,” in Theatre West: Image and Impact, Dutch Quarterly Review Studies in Literature 7, ed. Dunbar H. Ogden with Douglas McDermott and Robert K. Sarlós (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1990), 152, and Bank, “Historical, Dramatic, Theatrical, and Social Contexts,” 105–6. 24. Regarding “dry land farming,” see Frieda Knobloch, The Culture of Wilderness: Agriculture as Colonization in the American West (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), 62–66. 25. See Samuel Eliot Morison and Henry Steele Commager, The Growth of the American Republic, vol. II, 5th ed. (New York: Oxford University, 1962), 133–35, 152–58. For another and somewhat more recent discussion of Western migration in the nineteenth century, see Richard White, 183–211. 26. This fact not only is noted by Frederick Jackson Turner, but also inspired his famous essay “The Significance of the Frontier in American History,” in The Frontier in American History (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1986), 1. 27. In The Fatal Environment, Richard Slotkin discusses the way in which fron- tier events were communicated by the new popular media, especially how frontier events could be appropriated for the political agenda of a new mana- gerial class (477- 98). 28. Hyde concluded his study of frontier plays in 1917, and in “Rhetorical, Dramatic, Theatrical, and Social Contexts,” Bank wrote that “frontier plays . continued to be written in numbers until the vogue for them died out in the legitimate theatre about 1920” (3). 29. In regard to the unity of a discourse, Michel Foucault writes: “[I]f there really is a unity, it does not lie in the visible, horizontal coherence of the elements formed; it resides, well anterior to their formation, in the system that makes possible and governs that formation . By system of formation, then, I mean a complex group of relations that function as a rule: it lays down what must be related, in a particular discursive practice, for such and such an enunciation to be made, for such and such a concept to be used, for such and such a strategy to be organized” [The Archeology of Knowledge, trans. by A.M. Sheridan Smith 212 Notes (New York: Pantheon, 1972), 72–4]. Foucault’s analysis of discourse in The Archeology of Knowledge has been very significant for the discussion of dis- course set forth here. 30. Foucault, 125. 31. Foucault, 209. 32. Is a “frontier” to be seen as the margin or edge of a positive center, or is it to be seen as the area or line between two states, as in the case of Europe? Is it a place or a process? Patricia Limerick pursues such conceptual problems. See, for instance, Limerick, 23–7. 33. Frederick Jackson Turner, 3. 34. In this regard, Turner wrote in a letter to Merle Curti that “[A]s you know, the ‘West,’ with which I dealt, was a process rather than a fixed geographical region: it began with the Atlantic Coast; and it emphasized the way in which the East colonized the West, and how the ‘West,’ as it stood at any given pe- riod affected the development and ideas of the older areas of the East . .” [quoted by Wilbur Jacobs in “Frederick Jackson Turner,” The American West Magazine 1.1 (1964), 32]. 35. Various scholars have explored the significance of the fact that both Turner and Buffalo Bill were associated with the Columbian Exposition in Chicago. See Ann Fabian, “History of the Masses: Commercializing the Western Past,” in Under an Open Sky: Rethinking America’s Western Past, eds. William Cronon, George Miles, Jay Gitlin (New York: Norton, 1992), 223–238; Richard White, “Frederick Jackson Turner and Buffalo Bill,” in The Frontier in American Culture, ed. James R. Grossman (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), 6–65; and Bank, “Representing History: Performing the Columbian Exposition.” 36. Regarding Turner’s reviews of Roosevelt’s Winning of the West, see Ray Allen Billington, Frederick Jackson Turner: Historian, Scholar, Teacher (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973), 83–84 and 176–77, and Allan G. Bogue, Frederick Jackson Turner: Strange Roads Going Down (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1998), 87–88 and 137–39. 37. Augustus Thomas, The Print of My Remembrance (New York: Scribner’s, 1922), 336, 344. 38. Darwin Payne, Owen Wister: Chronicler of the West, Gentleman of the West (Dallas: Southern Methodist University Press, 1985), 163–4. 39. Frank P.