Propositions 1. Third party voluntary certification will likely fail if global standards are imposed on the producers without consideration of their social, cultural framework and practices. (this thesis) 2. Child labour is embedded in family and community life and should not be discussed in isolation but within the framework of socio-economic and socio-cultural environment within which cocoa cultivation takes place (this thesis). 3. The challenge of dealing with many concepts as prescribed by interdisciplinary research trajectory limits the scope of research. 4. Non enforcement of governmental regulations limits the amount of a common good that is available for use by citizens and threaten its sustainability. 5. Over politicisation of issues is the cause of under development in many countries in Africa. 6. Democracy unfortunately prioritises the perpetuation of poverty over the well-being of the poor. Propositions belonging to the thesis, entitled: 'Certifications, Child Labonr and Livelihood Strategies: An analysis of the cocoa production in Ghana'. Rita Owusu-Amankwah Wageningen, 26 August 2015 Certifications, Child Labour and Livelihood Strategies: An Analysis of Cocoa Production in Ghana Rita Owusu-Amankwah i Thesis committee Promotors Prof. Dr J.S.C. Wiskerke Professor of Rural Sociology Wageningen University Prof. Dr G.T.P. Ruivenkamp Associate professor, Rural Sociology Group Wageningen University Extra-ordinary Professor in Humanisation of Technologies University of Humanistic Studies, Utrecht Co-promotor Dr J.P. Jongerden Assistant professor, Rural Sociology Group Wageningen University Other members Prof dr S. Hisano (University of Kyoto Japan) [email protected] Prof D. Bruce Sarpong (University of Ghana Legon) O. van Kooten (Wageningen UR) Prof F. Asante (University of Ghana) This research was conducted under the auspices of the Wageningen School of Social Sciences. ii Certifications, Child Labour and Livelihood Strategies: An Analysis of Cocoa Production in Ghana Rita Owusu-Amankwah Thesis Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of doctor at Wageningen University by the authority of the Rector Magnificus Prof. Dr A.P.J. Mol, in the presence of the Thesis Committee appointed by the Academic Board to be defended in public on Wednesday 26 August, 2015 at at 11 a.m. in the Aula. iii Rita Owusu-Amankwah Certifications, Child Labour and Livelihood Strategies: An Analysis of Cocoa Production in Ghana 239 pages. PhD thesis, Wageningen University, Wageningen, NL (2015) With references, with summaries in Dutch and English ISBN: 978-94-6257-491-5 iv Table of Contents Table of contents ........................................................................................................................ v List of figures ......................................................................................................................... ix List of tables ......................................................................................................................... xi Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................. xii Abstract ........................................................................................................................ xv CHAPTER ONE: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ................................................................. i 1.1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 2 1.2. Theoretical Positioning of the Research .......................................................................... 3 1.2.1. Peasantisation, Modernisation and Globalisation of Agricultural Production Systems .................................................................................................................... 3 1.2.2. Globalisation and Childhood in Development Discourses ...................................... 6 1.2.3. Child Labour and Approaches to Combat Child Labour ...................................... 12 1.2.4. Defining Child Labour and Work ......................................................................... 17 1.2.5. Livelihood Diversification, Multi-functional Farming and Child Labour ............ 18 1.2.6. Glocalisation and Innovations ............................................................................... 23 1.3. Problem Statement ..................................................................................................... 27 1.4. Thesis Objectives and Research Questions ............................................................... 30 1.4.1. Overall Research Objective ................................................................................... 30 1.5. Thesis Approach and Methodology ........................................................................... 31 1.5.1. Conceptual Model ................................................................................................. 31 1.5.2. Methodology ......................................................................................................... 33 1.6. Structure of Thesis ..................................................................................................... 37 CHAPTER 2: STUDY CONTEXT .......................................................................................... 39 2.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 40 2.2. Historical Development of Cocoa Production in Ghana ............................................... 40 2.3. Ghana Cocoa Board and Cocoa Marketing ................................................................... 44 v 2.4. Cocoa Socio-economics ................................................................................................ 46 2.5. Cocoa Sector Challenges and Impact on Productivity and Livelihoods ....................... 46 2.6. Labour Requirements and Sources in Cocoa Production in Ghana .............................. 47 2.7. Issues of Child Labour in the World Economic Systems .............................................. 49 2.8. Child Labour in Ghana .................................................................................................. 50 2.9. Child Labour in the Cocoa Sector ................................................................................. 51 2.10. Responses to CL in the Cocoa Sector ......................................................................... 51 CHAPTER 3: MOBILISING SOCIAL CAPITAL TO DEAL WITH CHILD LABOUR: CCLMS CASE STUDY IN DWEASE, ASHANTI REGION ...................... 62 3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 63 3.1.1. Background: History of the Development of the CCLMS in Ghana .................... 63 3.2. Theoretical Framework ................................................................................................. 64 3.2.1. Conceptualisation of the Child Labour Monitoring System Process .................... 64 3.2.2. Social and Human Capitals in the Cocoa Producing Communities as Resources for Facilitating Change .......................................................................................... 66 3.3 Research Questions ........................................................................................................ 67 3.4. Methodology ................................................................................................................. 67 3.5. Study Results ................................................................................................................. 69 3.5.1. The Operation of CCLM and Generation of Social Capital .................................. 69 3.5.2 Motivation for Participation in the CCLM ............................................................ 78 3.5.3 Challenges to the CCLM ....................................................................................... 82 3.5.4 Perceived Impacts of CCLMS on Children’s Social Situations ............................ 83 3.5.5. Impact of CCLM on Children’s Attendance to School ......................................... 84 3.5.6. Children’s Involvement in Child Work and Hazardous Activities ....................... 86 3.5.7. Family Coping Strategies and Household Labour Arrangements ......................... 89 3.6. Discussion ..................................................................................................................... 91 3.6.1 Operationalisation of CCLM ................................................................................. 91 3.6.2 Individuals Involved in CCLMS Performing Social Roles ................................... 92 vi 3.6.3 Data Collection System ......................................................................................... 93 3.6.4 Impact of CCLM on Children‘s Social Situations ................................................ 94 3.7 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 96 CHAPTER 4: IMPLICATIONS OF THIRD PARTY VOLUNTARY COCOA CERTIFICATION ON LABOUR AND LIVELIHOOD SYSTEMS IN GHANA ......................................................................................................... 99 4.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................. 100 4.2. Conceptual Framework: .............................................................................................