SOCIAL STUDIES TEACHERS‘ PERCEPTIONS AND PRACTICES OF EDUCATING CITIZENS IN A DEMOCRACY IN UPPER CLASSES IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN BOTSWANA DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate Program of The Ohio State University By Mavis B. Mhlauli, M.Ed. College of Education and Human Ecology The Ohio State University 2010 Doctoral Examination Committee: Dr Merry M. Merryfield, Advisor Dr Binaya Subedi Dr Antoinette Errante COPYRIGHTED BY: Mavis B. Mhlauli 2010 ABSTRACT The purpose of my study was to explore the social studies teachers‘ conceptualizations, experiences, ideas, beliefs and practices of developing citizens in a democracy in upper classes in primary schools in Botswana. The study adopted a qualitative research approach and employed the naturalistic paradigm. The study was undertaken in six primary school settings in one of the major villages in the central district in Botswana for a period of three months. Data were collected through the use of multiple methods including; individual interviews, participant observation, focus groups and document analysis for triangulation purposes. The study adopted a grounded theory to data analysis by using the constant comparative data analysis technique for purposes of theory generation. The findings of this study have revealed a gloomy picture on citizenship education as perceived, interpreted and enacted within primary schools investigated hence leading to the conclusion that citizenship education remains an illusion rather than a reality. The teachers conceptualize citizenship in multiple ways indicating that citizenship in Botswana is complex, fluid and not homogeneous. The findings have also shown tremendous contradictions, paradoxes and challenges in citizenship development in a democracy like Botswana. This study provides significant implications for classroom application and practice, research, curriculum reform and innovation for social studies ii teachers, curriculum developers, policy makers, teacher educators and the public in informing them on issues of citizenship education in Botswana primary schools. iii DEDICATION This work is dedicated to the memory of two people who have had a great influence in my life. My late father, Thema Maruping Mhlauli, who taught me the importance of education and my late sister, Eunice Beleki Mhlauli-Pheko, who believed in me and always encouraged me to aim for greater things in life. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my deepest thanks and appreciation to a number of people whose invaluable support, dedication, vigor and guidance saw this work from the beginning to the end. I would like to acknowledge a profound debt of gratitude to my Advisor and mentor, Dr Merry Merryfield, whose concern, rigorous guidance, prompt feedback and dedication played a pivotal role in insuring that this work comes to fruition. Her critical mind on issues inspired me as it kept me on my toes all the time and her support for students is beyond measure. Looking back today, I can confidently say that ―I appreciate your work and I am glad to have been one of the recipients of that wisdom‖. I am also grateful to Dr Binaya Subedi, whose advice, support and encouragement kept me going. His work in social studies and post colonial theory has inspired me. I knew I could count on him when I needed academic advice. I am also thankful to Dr Antoinette Errante for her decisive advice and encouragement which saw this dissertation to the end. Her patience, understanding and concern for students is well appreciated. My love and gratitude goes to my family: My son, Andile, My nephew, Maipelo and My niece, Thapelo and My grand-daughter, Bakang for being patient with me to allow me to pursue my dream and their ability to persevere during my absence, I wish I could erase all the frustrations they endured. I would like to thank my niece Lekgapho for v sacrificing her time to take care of my belongings more especially Timmy during the four years of my absence. People like her are not easy to find! I am also thankful for the support I got from my mother, Grace Tlhalerwa and her determination and resilience to see me achieve this degree. I would like to thank my brother, Elvidge Mhlauli for stepping in to take responsibility of my belongings and helping my kids during my absence. Special thanks are extended to Mma-Sega for keeping me sane throughout my study period. Last but not least, I thank my friend Dr Jabulani Muchado for all the support and encouragement when things seemed very tough. To all my classmates who were always there for me in different ways: Misato, Bethany, Brad and Badang and My friends Adedunni Adeyemo-Ayodele and Dr Khosi Kubeka whose sincere love and care kept me going, I appreciate all of your support! To all those not mentioned here but have inspired me, thank you! Finally, I thank the University of Botswana for providing me with the opportunity to pursue this degree at this stage in my life. vi VITA 1961…………………………………………………Born in Mahalapye, Botswana 1981-1982………………………… ……………….PTC: Francistown Teacher Training College, Botswana 1983-1989…………………………………………..Teacher. Mopipi Primary School, Botswana 1989-1993…………………………………………..B.Ed (Primary Education) University of Botswana 1993-1998………………………………………….Lecturer, Social Studies Education Serowe College of Education 1998-2000…………………………. ………………M.Ed (Social Studies Education, University of Botswana 2000-2003…………………………………………..Senior Lecturer, Tlokweng College of Education 2003-2006…………………………………………….Lecturer (Social Studies Education) University of Botswana vii PUBLICATIONS Mhlauli, M.B., Vosburg-Bluem, B. & Merryfield, M.M. (2010). Natural disasters in the lives of women in Southern Africa. In V.Ooka Pang, W.R. Fernekes and J.L. Nelson (Eds). The human impact of natural disasters: Issues for inquiry-based classroom. NCSS Bulletin 110. viii FIELDS OF STUDY Major Field: Education Social Studies and Global Education Multicultural Education Qualitative Research ix TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………………………ii DEDICATION……………………………………………………………………………iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS………………………………………………………………vi VITA………………………………………………...…………………………………...vii FIELDS OF STUDY……………………………………………………………………..ix LIST OF TABLES…………………………………………………...................................x CHAPTER 1………………………………………………………………………………1 INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………...1 Statement of the Problem………………………………………………………………….2 Rationale for the Study……………………………………………………………………3 Research Questions………………………………………………………………………..6 Theoretical Framework……………………………...…………………………………….7 The Inheritance of Colonial Education……………………………………………8 Orientalism……………………………………………………………………….13 Post-Colonial Theory…………………………………………………………….14 Knowledge Construction and Production………………………………………..14 Methodology and Research Design……………………………………………...............18 Qualitative Inquiry……………………………………………………………….18 x Naturalistic Paradigm……………………………………………………………20 Participants‘ Selection…………………………………………………...............21 Data Analysis……………………………………………………………………22 Significance of Study……………………………………………………………………23 Limitations of the Study…………………………………………………………………24 Background on Botswana………………………………………………………………..25 Organization of Remaining Chapters…………………………………………………….30 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………….30 Definition of Terms………………………………………………………………………31 CHAPTER 2……………………………………………………………………………..34 REVIEW OF LITERATURE ON SOCIAL STUDIES AND CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION……………………………………………………………………………34 INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………….34 Citizenship Education: An International Perspective……………………………………36 Brief History of Social Studies in the US………………………………………………..39 Theories of Citizenship…………………………………………………………………..52 Liberal Theory of Citizenship……………………………………………………52 Communitarian Theory of Citizenship…………………………………………..53 Civic Republican Theory of Citizenship…………………………………………53 Neo-Republican Theory of Citizenship………………………………………….54 Teacher‘s Perspectives on Citizenship…………………………………………...............54 Critical Thinking Perspective……………………………………………………55 Legalistic Perspective……………………………………………………………55 xi Cultural Pluralism………………………………………………………………..55 Assimilationist Perspective………………………………………………………56 Social Studies and Development of Citizens in a Democracy……..................................56 Knowledge Acquisition and Understanding……………………………………..58 Development of Necessary Skills ……………………………………………….67 Development of Values, Beliefs & Attitudes……………………………………72 Discussion of Controversial Issues………………………………………………74 Awareness and Understanding of Trends in Social Studies……………………..77 Education and Citizenship Education in Africa………………………………………….80 Africa and Decolonization……………………………………………………….80 Citizenship Education in Africa………………………………………………….83 Schooling and the Development of Citizens……………………………………………..85 Access to Education……………………………………………………………...86 Educational Policies……………………………………………………………..90 Education for ―Self Reliance‖ in Tanzania (Ujamaa)…………………...90 The ―Harambee” Schools in Kenya……………………………………..93 Education for “Kagisano” in Botswana…………………………………95 Language Policies………………………………………………………………..97 Indigenous Knowledge Systems…………………………………………………99 Relevance to the National Needs……………………………………………….102 Social Studies and Development of Citizenship Education…………………………….103 Africanization of Social Studies Curriculum…………………………………...104 Promotion of Inquiry-Based Teaching Methods……………………………….106 xii Challenges in Implementing Social Studies Curriculum……………………………….108 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………...109