CHAPTER 3 THE AGE OF AKBAR MUGHAL THEORIES OF KINGSHIP AND STATE POLITY Akbar is generally recognized as the greatest and most capable of the Mughal rulers. Under him Mughal polity and statecraft reached maturity; and under his guidance the Mughals changed from a petty power to a major dynastic state. From his time to the end of the Mughal period, artistic production on both an imperial and sub-imperial level was closely linked to notions of state polity, religion and kingship. Humayun died in 1556, only one year after his return to Hindustan. Upon hearing the call to prayers, he slipped on the steep stone steps of the library in his Din-Panah citadel in Delhi. Humayun's only surviving son and heir- apparent, Akbar, then just fourteen years of age, ascended the throne and ruled until 1605 the expanding Mughal empire. Until about 1561, Akbar was under the control of powerful court factions, first his guardian, Bhairam Khan, and then the scheming Maham Anga, a former imperial wet-nurse. Between about 1560 and 1580, Akbar devoted his energies to the conquest and then the con- solidation of territory in north India. This he achieved through battle, marriage, treaty and, most significantly, administrative reform. Concurrent with these activities, Akbar developed an interest in religion that, while initially a personal concern, ultimately transformed his concept of state. Many of the policies he adopted, such as the renunciation of the poll-tax (jiziya) for non- Muslims, had a solid political basis as well as a personal one, for Akbar, much more than his Mughal predecessors, saw every advantage in maintaining good relations with the Hindu majority. Moreover, during this period, Akbar equally was interested in winning over the sympathy of orthodox Indian Muslims. In part, his goal was to reduce the power of the dominant Iranian nobles, that is, Persian and Central Asian nobles, by including Indians, both Hindu and Muslim, in his administration. Always interested in religious affairs, Akbar showed a deep reverence for saints belonging to the Islamic Chishti order. His devotion to them peaked between 1568 and 1579. This coincides with the period that he commenced the khanqah and palace at Fatehpur Sikri, whose construction was stimulated by his spiritual guide (pir) who resided there. Commencing about 1575, Akbar's interest in religions and religious matters broadened. First, he invited learned men from diverse Islamic sects and later Christian priests, Hindus, Jains and 39 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. University of Delhi, on 29 Apr 2020 at 13:07:02, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521267281.004Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 THE AGE OF AKBAR Zoroastrians to join him in discussions, which more often than not turned into petty disputes, particularly among the leading Muslim thinkers. The result led Akbar increasingly away from formalized religion and into a deep personal spiritualism with strong mystical overtones, but one that was rooted within the font of Islam. The events of the later part of his reign were marked by an attempt to control the Deccan plateau of central south India and territory in the northwest including Kashmir, Qandahar and Baluchistan. His final years were spent in conflict with his only surviving son, Salim, the future Jahangir, who rebelled against his father, establishing his own court in Allahabad. Eventually Salim and Akbar were reconciled, but it is believed by some that Akbar died poisoned by his son. Our knowledge of Akbar's thought and policy comes from the writings of Abu al-Fazl, Akbar's chronicler and close companion. The first part of his massive Persian text commenced about 1589 was the Akbar Nama, or the Book of Akbar; it is a eulogistic chronicle of the events of Akbar's reign. The second part, known as the A 'in-i Akbari, or Regulations of Akbar, is a manual of state- craft. Together these present Akbar's mature concept of kingship and state. These, in large measure, continued to serve as the basis of the Mughal state. Abu al-Fazl presents Akbar as a divinely inspired ruler who traced his lineage not only to his esteemed ancestor, Timur, but back further to a Mughal princess whose offspring were the products of a miraculous impregnation by light.1 Describing Akbar as an emanation of God's light, Abu al-Fazl plays upon light imagery, presenting the emperor as a superior being who had a special relationship with God. By contrast, earlier Islamic kings were con- sidered but shadows of God on earth. Abu al-Fazl's writings indicate that Akbar, adhering to well-established Perso-Islamic concepts of sovereignty, believed that the ultimate justification for the Mughal empire was the propagation of justice. He presents Akbar not only as divinely inspired, but also as a paternal figure concerned for his subjects' welfare. As patriarch of the state, Akbar's mantle does not only extend to Muslims, traditionally the only valid subjects of an Islamic state, but to non-Muslims as well. For example, in 1579, he issued a declaration (mahzar) allowing in some instances the emperor, rather than Islamic judges, to decide matters that affected the lives of all his subjects. Akbar further underscored toleration as a major concern of state by declaring his policy of sulh-i kul, universal toleration. That extended the canopy of justice to all, regardless of religious affiliation, thus establishing the groundwork for the successful and long-term domination of an Islamic state in the midst of a non-Muslim majority. 1 Akbar Nama, i: 37. 40 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. University of Delhi, on 29 Apr 2020 at 13:07:02, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521267281.004Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 AKBAR'S PATRONAGE Under Akbar, Mughal administration was divided into three categories: the household, the army and the empire. Akbar was the head of each of these, and it was to him personally that all high-ranking nobles answered. To further perpetuate his role as the head of state and as father to his people, Akbar estab- lished the Din-i Ilahi, a disciple-like relationship between himself and his most trusted nobles. Many have interpreted the Din-i Ilahi as a new religion. This is a misunderstanding, resulting in part from the nature of Akbar's relationship with his highest-ranking nobles. This relationship can be likened to that between an Islamic spiritual guide (pir) and his devotees (murids), or a master and his slave. Understanding the nobles' commitment to Akbar helps explain the diffusion of a uniform aesthetic across Mughal territory. AKBAR'S PATRONAGE Architecture in Delhi (1556-76) Delhi, the traditional capital of north Indian Islamic rulers, served as Akbar's capital until 1565, when he commenced his massive Agra fort. This was followed by the construction of other forts in strategically important locations signaling the diminishing importance of Delhi, until its revival in the mid- seventeenth century. While ruling from Delhi, Akbar continued to reside in Humayun's citadel, Din-Panah. There is no example of Akbar's architecture from these early years, but leading members of his court built mosques and tombs close to the Din-Panah. For example, the Khair al-Manazil mosque and madrasa were constructed in 1561 by Maham Anga. She had been one of Akbar's wet-nurses and had considerable influence over the young king during this early period. Erected under the supervision of Shihab al-Din Ahmad Khan, her son-in-law, the mosque closely follows the plan and elevation of the nearby Qalca-i Kuhna mosque probably built by Sher Shah. Her mosque is embellished with incised stucco and paint in lieu of inlaid stone. Its courtyard is enclosed with high cloistered walls used as a madrasa. The dominant feature of the mosque, however, is not the prayer chamber, but its monumental east gate (Plate 15). It is faced with red and white stones like those on the entrance gates into the Din-Panah. This gate, which lay on a main thoroughfare linking the fort with the city walls, commanded a dominant position in the city. Nearby is the shrine (dargah) of Nizam al-Din Auliya. Restorations had been made there in Babur's and Humayun's reigns, and further renovations were made in Akbar's time. In 1562 a noble of Akbar's court, Farid al-Khan, rebuilt Nizam al-Din's tomb. The walls of this square-plan tomb consist of marble screens (jalis) supported by intricately carved pillars; the carved geometric patterns are more finely rendered than those on the nearby tomb of Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. University of Delhi, on 29 Apr 2020 at 13:07:02, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521267281.004Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 THE AGE OF AKBAR Plate 15. Gate, Khair al-Manazil mosque, Delhi Khusrau (Plate 13) carved in Humayun's reign. It is with this tomb that marble, probably in emulation of the tomb of Mucin al-Din in Ajmer, becomes an emblem of sanctity in Mughal architecture. In the dargah of Nizam al-Din is the tomb of Ataga Khan (Plate 16), built in 1566-67 by his son Mirza cAziz Koka. Ataga Khan, Akbar's prime minister and the husband of one of his wet-nurses, was murdered in 1562 by the jealous son of Maham Anga.