NAVIGATING ATHEIST IDENTITIES: AN ANALYSIS OF NONRELIGIOUS PERCEPTIONS AND EXPERIENCES IN THE RELIGIOUSLY DIVERSE CANADIAN CITY OF OTTAWA Steven Tomlins Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctorate in Philosophy degree in Religious Studies Department of Classics & Religious Studies Faculty of Arts University of Ottawa © Steven Tomlins, Ottawa, Canada, 2016 ii Abstract There is very little research that is empirically-based about atheism in Canada; this thesis seeks to contribute foundational knowledge in this area. It begins with a historical and contemporary overview of atheism in Canada by examining its appearance in government, law, and media. It then addresses the question: “How do atheists construct their identities in the context of a religiously diverse Canada?” through an analysis of data collected from participant-observation with an atheist university club, the Atheist Community of the University of Ottawa (ACUO), followed by an analysis of five significant themes which arose from forty life history interviews (twenty with ACUO members; twenty with Ottawa-area atheists who did not belong to an atheist community that met in person). These themes are: loss of religious identity and/or development of atheist identity; group belonging; perceptions of media and public understanding of atheism; the use of the United States for narrative or comparative purposes; and the frequency of receiving a negative reaction simply for being an atheist. This study found that most interviewees perceived the Canadian public and the media as not understanding atheism because the subject is not commonly reported on or discussed, and many said that (ir)religiosity rarely came up in conversations with strangers, acquaintances, or co-workers. These notions were often seen as resulting from a Canadian social etiquette which dictates that controversial subjects should be avoided in order to minimize the risk of causing offense. Moreover, members of the ACUO often said that they joined an atheist community because they wanted a safe space to meet like-minded people with whom they could freely discuss religion without causing offense to religious others. Unlike in findings from the United States, interviewees did not speak of their atheist identities as being considered ‘un-Canadian’ or as excluding them from their conception(s) of Canadian society. While interviewees often said they were selective with whom they decided to express their atheism, most felt quite positive about living as an atheist in Canada, especially compared to the plight of atheists living in other countries, and atheism came across as being ‘just’ another ‘idea’ in a mosaic of cultural ideas. iii Acknowledgements I would like to thank the staff and faculty of the Department of Classics and Religious Studies at the University of Ottawa who have been exceptionally supportive throughout my years of study. My research has been conducted under the SSHRC-funded Religion and Diversity Project which is directed by my supervisor, Dr. Lori G Beaman. I am indebted to Dr. Beaman for her constant encouragement and inspiration. I would like to offer my gratitude to those who welcomed me as a participant-observer into their community, as well as those who agreed to be interviewed, trusting me with their intimate life stories and personal thoughts on religion and atheism. Without them this thesis would never have been possible, and I am truly appreciative! I am deeply thankful to my family for their continuous support and to my friends and colleagues, who were always there to listen, share ideas, and offer advice during my studies. Finally, I would like to offer a heartfelt ‘thanks’ to the late Anne Catherine Stevenson who provided me with a place to stay when I was an undergraduate at the University of Prince Edward Island. I am forever grateful for her kindness. iv Table of Contents Chapter One: Introduction………...………………………………………………..…………..1 1.1 Topic of Research…………………………………………………………………......1 1.2 Development of Thesis Subject Matter and Focus………………………………...….3 1.3 Scope………………………………………………………………………………..…6 1.4 Terminology………………………………………………………………………...…7 1.5 Previous Literature on ‘Modern’ Atheism………………………………………..….11 1.5.1 Primary Sources: Select Principle Actors in the Rise of Modern Atheism…….…………………………………………………………..…..12 1.5.2 Contemporary Secondary Sources………………………………………....16 1.5.2.1 Previous Literature on Atheism in Canada…………………...….19 1.6 Structure and Organization………………………………………………………..…20 Chapter Two: Setting the Scene: Canada’s Historical and Contemporary Religious Character as it Pertains to Atheism……………….…………………………………………..21 2.1 Historical……………………………………………………………………………..21 2.1.2 Confederation…………………………………………………………...….23 2.1.3 Blasphemous Libel………………………………………………………....25 2.1.3.1 R. v. Pelletier..................................................................................27 2.1.3.2. R. v. Kinler………………………………………………………27 2.1.3.3 R. v. Sherry……………………………………………………….28 2.1.3.4 R. v. St. Martin…………………………………………………...29 2.1.3.5 R. v. Rahard……………………………………………………...30 2.1.4 The Case of Ernest and Cornelia Bergsma…………………………...……31 2.1.5 Summary………………………………………………………………..….37 2.2 Contemporary…………………………………………………………………….….39 2.2.1 Federal…………………………………………………………………...…39 2.2.2 Demography……………………………………………………….……….47 2.2.3 Atheist Organizations………………………………………………………48 2.2.3.1 Centre for Inquiry Canada…………………………………...…..48 2.2.3.2 Humanist Canada…………………………………………….…..50 2.2.4 Legal Matters – Atheist Activism………………………………………….51 2.2.4.1 Prayer and the Distribution of Bibles in Public Schools……...….52 2.2.4.1.1 Zylberberg v. Sudbury Board of Education…………....53 2.2.4.1.2 R.C. v. District School Board of Niagara………...……54 2.2.4.2 Town Council Prayers………………………………………..…..56 2.2.4.2.1 Freitag v. Penetanguishene…………………………....56 2.2.4.2.2 Allen v. Corporation of the County of Renfrew………..60 2.2.4.2.3 Other Recent Cases…………………………………….62 2.2.4.2.4 The Last Word on Prayer……………………………....63 2.2.5 Treatment of Atheism by the Mainstream Media…………...………..……67 2.2.5.1 Negative Portrayals…………………………………………..…..69 2.2.5.2 Positive Portrayals………………………………………...……..78 2.2.6 The Atheist Bus Campaign………………………………………...………82 2.2.6.1 Legal Matters………………………………………………...…..83 v 2.2.6.2 Social Responses……………………………………...………….86 2.2.6.3 Follow Up………………………………………………………..89 2.2.7 Multiculturalism and Atheism……………………………………………..92 2.2.8 Summary………………………………………………………..………….97 2.3 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………..……….99 Chapter Three: Herding Cats: Methodology, Procedure, and Theoretical Frameworks................................................................................................................................101 3.1 Why Study Atheism in Canada?................................................................................101 3.1.1 Research Question……………………………………………….……….103 3.3 Theoretical Approach………………………………………………………...……..104 3.3.1 Lived Religion……………………………………………………..……..104 3.3.2 Identity................................................………………………………..…..108 3.4 Methodological Approach…………………………………………………….……110 3.5 Limitations…………………………………………………………………...……..116 3.6 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………….117 Chapter Four: Nonreligion in Action: The Atheist Community of the University of Ottawa……………………………………………………………………………………….....119 4.1 Locational Context and Historical Overview…………………………………...….120 4.2 Main Events……………………………………………………………..………….127 4.2.1 “Does God Exist?” Debate (2010)………………………………………..127 4.2.2 “Founders of Religions” Debate (2011)……………………………….…131 4.2.3 The Muhammad Stick Figure ‘Controversy’ (2011)……………………..134 4.2.4 The Abortion Debate (2011)……………………………………….……..141 4.2.5 Reason Week (2012)……………………………………………..……….146 4.3 Concluding Remarks………………………………………………………..………154 Chapter Five: Demographics and Transitions: Losing One’s Religion……...………...….158 5.1 Demography: ACUO……………………………………………………….………161 5.2 Demography: NGAA……………………………………………………………….164 5.3 Becoming an Atheist: ACUO……………………………………………...……….166 5.3.1 James………………………………………………………….…………..166 5.3.2 Sylvia……………………………………………………………..………168 5.3.3 Wade………………………………………………………..…………….171 5.3.4 Krista………………………………………………………..…………….172 5.4 Becoming an Atheist: NGAA………………………………………………………175 5.4.1 Patrick……………………………………………………………...……..175 5.4.2 Ken………………………………………………………………..………177 5.4.3 Juliana……………………………………………………….……………178 5.4.4 April……………………………………………………...……………….180 5.5 Discussion……………………………………………………………………..……181 5.6. Conclusion…………………………………………………………………..……..194 Chapter Six: To Join or not to Join: Choosing to Belong to an Atheist Community.…....197 6.1 Joining an Atheist Community: ACUO…………………………………………….198 vi 6.1.1 Glen………………………………………………………….……………199 6.1.2 Andrew………………………………………………………...………….200 6.1.3 Evelyn…………………………………………………………………….202 6.1.4 Billy…………………………………………………………………..…..203 6.2 Not Joining an Atheist Community: NGAA……………………………….……….205 6.2.1 Jean…………………………………………………………………….…206 6.2.2 Hayden…………………………………………………………..………..207 6.2.3 Nick……………………………………………………………………….208 6.2.4 Ashley…………………………………………………………………….210 6.3 Discussion…………………………………………………………….…………….211 6.4 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………….218 Chapter Seven: Atheism in Canada: Perceptions of the Public and the Media ….………221 7.1 Perceptions of the Public and the Media: ACUO……………………………..……223 7.1.1 Gerard……………………………………………………………….……224 7.1.2 Heather……………………………………………………………………226 7.1.3 Edward……………………………………………………………...…….228