UNIVERSITÀ DEGLI STUDI DI FOGGIA DIPARTIMENTO DI SCIENZE AGRARIE, DEGLI ALIMENTI E DELL’AMBIENTE TESI DI DOTTORATO DI RICERCA IN “BIOTECNOLOGIE DEI PRODOTTI ALIMENTARI” (XXVII CICLO) COORDINATORE: PROF. MATTEO ALESSANDRO DEL NOBILE Production of high-quality red wines from native vines through the management of viticultural, technological, aging and packaging variables PhD student: Dr. Antonio De Gianni Tutor: Dr. Antonietta Baiano Co-tutor: Prof. Ennio La Notte Dr. Donatella Nardiello ANNO ACCADEMICO 2011-2014 - 0 - SUMMARY Chapter 1 - Botanical classification, morphology, physiology of grapevine and quality of wine………………………………………………………………….…………………...- 4 - 1.1 Taxonomic classification…...………………………………………………………- 5 - 1.2 Morphology of grapevine………………………………………………..…………- 6 - 1.2.1 The Root System…………………………………………………………………...- 6 - 1.2.2 The Trunk………………………………………………………….……………….- 7 - 1.2.3 Shoots and Canes…………………………………………………………..............- 8 - 1.3 Grape berry growth……….………..……………………………………………..- 12 - 1.4 Grape Composition…………..………………..…………………………………..- 15 - 1.5 Vineyard ecosystem and wine quality……….……………..…………………….- 17 - 1.5.1 Vineyard…………………………………………………………………………..- 18 - 1.5.2 Territory………………………………………………………………………......- 19 - 1.5.3 Climate…………………………………………………………………………....- 20 - 1.5.4 Training system……………………………………………………………...……- 21 - 1.5.5 Nutrition and irrigation…...………………………………………………………- 22 - Chapter 2 - History, geography, and economics of grape wine derived from red berry…………………………………………………………………………………….- 23 - 2.1 Wine history……………………..……………..………………………………….- 24 - 2.2 Wine geography and economics………..……………………………….………..- 24 - Chapter 3 - Red-wine winemaking and aging technologies……………..……………- 28 - 3.1 Winemaking technologies……………..……………..……………………………- 29 - 3.1.1 Addition of co-pigments, enzymes, and tannins………………...………………..- 29 - 3.1.2 Carbonic maceration……………………………………………………...………- 33 - 3.1.3 Co-winemaking…………………………………………………………...………- 33 - 3.1.4 Cryomaceration………………………………………………………………...…- 35 - 3.1.5 Délestage………………………………………………………………...………..- 37 - 3.1.6 Prolonged maceration……………………………………………………………..- 38 - 3.1.7 Saignée………………………………………………………………………..…..- 39 - 3.1.8 Thermovinification………………………………………………………………..- 40 - 3.2 Aging technologies…..…………………………………………………………….- 41 - 3.2.1 Wine aging in oak barrel………………………………………………………….- 41 - 3.2.2 Wine aging using wood fragments………………………………………………..- 43 - 3.2.3 Wine aging using micro-oxygenation…………………………………………….- 47 - - 1 - 3.2.4 Wine aging on lees………………………………………………………………..- 49 - 3.2.5 Wine aging in amphorae………………………………………………………….- 51 - 3.2.6 Wine aging in bottles………………………...…………………………………...- 52 - Chapter 4 - Packaging systems…………………………………………………...……- 56 - 4.1 Wine packaging: a brief history………………..………………………………...- 57 - 4.2 The main problems of wine shelf-life……….……..……………………………..- 57 - 4.3 Glass bottle and glass bottle closures………..………….………………………..- 59 - 4.4 Other packaging materials……………..…….…………………………………...- 65 - 4.4.1 PET bottles……………………………………...………………………………...- 66 - 4.4.2 Bag-in-Box (BIB)…………………………………………………………………- 67 - 4.4.3 Laminated paperboard containers……………………………………...…………- 68 - 4.4.5 Metal cans…………………………………………………………………...……- 68 - Chapter 5 - Aims of the research………………...…………………………………….- 70 - Chapter 6 - Materials and Methods………………..………………………………….- 73 - 6.1 Red grapes……………………………..………………………..…………………- 74 - 6.1.1 Aglianico…………………………………………………………...……………..- 74 - 6.1.2 Montepulciano…………………………………………………………………….- 75 - 6.1.3 Uva di Troia……………………………...……………………………………….- 77 - 6.2 Leaf removal treatment………………..….………………………………………- 78 - 6.2.1 Vineyard site……………………………………………………...………………- 78 - 6.2.2 Leaf removal treatments and leaf area evaluation……………………...…………- 79 - 6.2.3 Field measurements…………………………………………………………...…..- 79 - 6.2.4 Grapes and winemaking…………………………………...……………………...- 80 - 6.3 Micro-oxygenation and treatment with oak chips……..………………………..- 81 - 6.4 Comparison among winemaking procedures…………..………………………..- 81 - 6.5 Comparison among several types of closure having different permeability…..- 83 - 6.6 Timing of the treatment with oak chips………………………………………….- 84 - 6.7 Treatment with oak wood chips combined with other processing……………..- 85 - 6.8 Analytical determinations………………………………………………………...- 85 - 6.8.1 Physical-chemical analysis………………………………………………………..- 85 - 6.8.2 Colour measurements and structure indices………………………………………- 86 - 6.8.3 Determination of phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity……………...….- 86 - 6.8.4 HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS/MS analysis of phenolics………………………………….- 87 - 6.8.5 HS-SPME-GC-MS analysis of free volatile compounds…………………………- 89 - - 2 - 6.9 Sensory descriptive analysis………………………..……………………………..- 90 - 6.10 Statistical analysis………………………………………………………………..- 91 - Chapter 7 - Results and Discussion…………………………………………………...- 92 - 7.1 Study of the effects of defoliation on composition of Uva di Troia (Vitis vinifera L.) grape and wine……………………………………………..………………………….- 93 - 7.2 Evaluation of treatment with oak chips and micro-oxygenation on colour stabilization and phenolic evolution of wines derived from native red grape cultivars………………………………………………………………………………- 109 - 7.2.1 Aglianico wines………………………………………………………………….- 109 - 7.2.2 Montepulciano wines……………………………………………………………- 128 - 7.2.3 Nero di Troia wines……………………………………………………………...- 145 - 7.3 Influence of winemaking technologies on chemical and sensorial parameters in native wines..………………………………………………………………….……...- 167 - 7.4 Effect of the treatments with French oak chips performed before or after the malo-lactic fermentation on Nero di Troia wine quality…………………………..- 178 - 7.5 Study of single and interactive effects of leaf removal and aging with French oak chips on physical, chemical, and sensory characteristics of Nero di Troia wines…………………………………………………………………………………..- 191 - 7.6 Evaluation of single and interactive effects of the winemaking technologies and treatment with oak chips on colour, phenolic composition and sensory profile of Nero di Troia wines………………………………………………………………...………- 208 - 7.7 Evaluation of single and interactive effects of the treatment with oak chips and different types of closure on Nero di Troia wine quality………………………….- 227 - Chapter 8 - Conclusions……………………………………………………………...- 246 - References……..……………………………………………………………………...- 250 - - 3 - Chapter 1 Botanical classification, morphology, physiology of grapevine and quality of wine - 4 - Botanical classification, morphology, physiology of grapevine and quality of wine 1.1 Taxonomic classification Grapevines are grouped in the genus Vitis, family Vitaceae that also includes two well- know species, such as Boston Ivy (Parthenocissus tricuspidata) and Virginia Creeper (P. quinquefolia). The Vitaceae family comprises more than a thousand tropical and subtropical species, subdivided in 15 or 16 genera (Galet, 1988). The genus Vitis grows in a temperate-zone and develops indigenously only in the northern hemisphere. It was divided into two subgenera, Vitis and Muscadinia. Vitis (bunch grapes) is the larger of the two subgenera, including all species except V. rotundifolia and V. popenoei. These latter two species are included in the Muscadinia subgenus. The subgenus Vitis includes species which are characterized by a shredding bark without protuberant lenticels, a medulla interrupted at nodes by woody tissue, phloem fibers tangentially positioned, branched tendrils, elongated flower clusters, a fruit adhering to the fruit stem at maturity, and a pear- shaped seed having a smooth chalaza and a protuberant beak (Jackson, 2008). The grapevine species (Vitis vinifera L.) is the single Vitis species that attained significant economic importance over time, while some other species, i.e. the North American V. rupestris, V. riparia or V. berlandieri, are used as breeding rootstock due to their resistance against grapevine pathogens such as Phylloxera, Oidium and mildews. Indeed, most of the cultivated varieties, classified as Vitis vinifera L. subsp. vinifera (or sativa), derive from the wild species Vitis vinifera L. subsp. sylvestris (Gmelin) Hegi (Rossetto et al., 2002; Sefc et al., 2003; Crespan, 2004). This wild grapevine is a heliophilous vine distributed in a wide area from the Western Europe to the Trans-Caucasian zone and around the Mediterranean basin (Arnold et al., 1998). Its current distribution is highly fragmented in separated micro-populations or meta-populations, with few individuals, at least in the western part of the Mediterranean Basin. The progressive decline of the wild grape populations may be explained by the anthropogenic pressure on their natural habitats and by the presence of pathogens introduced from North America during the second part of the 19th century (Arnold et al., 1998). Indeed, the “Phylloxera crisis” that affected the European vineyards had a considerable impact on both cultivated varieties and wild grapes. The common grapevine is the only common species of the series Vinifera and has Eurasian origin. It is also present as spontaneous species. Within the species, there are two subspecies: - 5 - Botanical classification, morphology, physiology of grapevine and quality of wine Vitis vinifera subsp. sativa, with hermaphrodite plants and bisexual flowers. It is the subspecies that includes the cultivated varieties; Vitis vinifera subsp. sylvestris, with dioecious plants. It is the spontaneous subspecies, widespread in woodlands and scrub warm temperate regions of the Eurasia. From the agronomic point of view, this subspecies is entirely devoid of interest (http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitis_vinifera).