The Science of Astrology: Schreibkalender, Natural Philosophy, and Everyday Life in the Seventeenth-Century German Lands A dissertation submitted to the Graduate School of the University of Cincinnati in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of History of the College of Arts and Sciences by Kelly Marie Smith M.A. University of Cincinnati, December 2003 B.S. Eastern Michigan University, December 2000 Committee Chair: Sigrun Haude, Ph.D. Abstract This dissertation explores the use of Schreibkalender, or writing-calendars, and their accompanying prognostica astrologica to evaluate how ideas about seventeenth-century natural philosophy – particularly the relationship between astronomy and astrology – changed throughout the period. These calendars contain a wealth of information that demonstrates the thirst early modern readers had for knowledge of the world around them. Because Schreibkalender and prognostica were written annually for the general populace and incorporated contemporary ideas regarding natural philosophy, they provide a means to assess the roles of both astronomical and astrological ideas during this period and how these changes were conveyed to the average person. Not only did authors present practical information related to the natural world, but they also explained basic philosophical principles and new discoveries to their audience. This research examines how changing ideas about the role of natural philosophy and its direct influence on everyday life developed over the course of the seventeenth century. An examination of the Schreibkalender and prognostica reveals a shift in emphasis throughout the period. Early calendars (approximately 1600-30) presented direct astronomical and astrological information related to the daily life of the average person, whereas those from the middle of the century (~1630-70) added helpful details explaining astronomical and astrological concepts. Authors also engaged in debates about new discoveries and methodologies in these calendars, which gave readers access to the dynamic and complex field of mid-century natural philosophy. Late-century (~1670-1700) calendar-makers continued the tradition of their predecessors, but they made fewer astrological predictions. Instead, they listed basic ii astronomical data – such as the locations of the planets or the phases of the moon – and added new subject matter that was still firmly rooted in readers’ practical needs. The calendars reveal a deep connection between people and the natural world. Meteorological forecasts and predictions about planting and harvesting crops enabled users to plan their days, months, and seasons. Authors also relied on major events like eclipses to make special predictions about the world around them. Portents like comets could also signify the possibility of increased warfare. Chapters on the prospect for war or peace, on the fruitfulness of the Earth, or the possibility for disease and epidemics also helped readers understand the events and calamities occurring around them. As the century progressed, however, authors adapted their calendars to include fewer predictions and instead focused on new topics like biblical stories, histories, or household tips. These accounts enabled the calendars to remain competitive with new media, such as newspapers or travel accounts, even as interest in astrology decreased. A thorough assessment of Schreibkalender and prognostica astrologica uncovers valuable information about how a general audience learned about and understood natural philosophy throughout the seventeenth century. Furthermore, this research provides a clearer understanding of the role that astronomy and astrology played within the development of the physical sciences. iii iv Acknowledgements I would first like to express my appreciation to my advisor, Dr. Sigrun Haude, for her constant support from the very first class. Her expertise and encouragement made it possible for me to learn and grow as a scholar. The countless hours she spent reading my work and meeting with me to discuss it improved my drafts exponentially. She provided valuable and thought- provoking insights and motivated me to strive continually to improve the quality of my work. Without her direction, I would not have been able to achieve my goal of completing this dissertation. Being Dr. Hilda Smith’s research assistant enabled me to pursue my doctorate. The knowledge I gained working on the Nation, Family, State project was invaluable and I am grateful for her assistance. Dr. Tracy Teslow’s coursework provided the inspiration and background information so I could write a dissertation on the history of science. I appreciate her guidance. I have long admired the scholarship of Dr. Gerhild Scholz Williams of Washington University in St. Louis and am honored she agreed to be on this committee. I would also like to thank my professors in the History Department, as well as Hope Earls, Ashley Bone, and Anita Swillinger. I first conducted my exploratory research at the Staatsarchiv Nürnberg where Ursula Schmidt-Fölkersamb found calendars to bring me every day. It was in Nuremberg where I first met Dr. Klaus-Dieter Herbst, whose work has uncovered thousands of Schreibkalender in archives throughout Germany. Dr. Herbst graciously volunteered to send me articles he had written and information about his research. He also invited me to publish a short description of my dissertation in one of his collections and to give a talk at a conference dedicated to Schreibkalender in November, 2011 in Altenburg, Germany. My conference paper in his edited v collection became my second publication. I am indebted to his support at this early stage in my career. The generous funding from the Rolf und Ursula Schneider-Stiftung at the Herzog August Bibliothek in Wolfenbüttel and a fellowship at the Institut für Europäische Geschichte in Mainz allowed me to spend time in Germany, where I was able to access my sources and conduct my research. I appreciate the advice and help from Dr. Jill Bepler, Dr. Volker Bauer, Herr Christian Hogrefe, Frau Gerlinde Strauß, and Dr. Cornelia Moore in Wolfenbüttel and Dr. Irene Dingel, Dr. Heinz Durchhardt, Dr. Johannes Wischmeyer, Dr. Henning Jürgens, Frau Ulrike Moritz, and Herr Winfried Koch in Mainz. I am fortunate that there were people and organizations who believed in my research and contributed the funding that was necessary to pursue it. The University of Cincinnati and the Department of History provided me not just with a Graduate Assistantship Award, but also the Charles Phelps Taft Graduate Enrichment Award, the Henry Winkler Scholarship, and financial support from the Werner E. Von Rosentiel Fund and the History Memorial Fund. I also received a scholarship from the German Academic Exchange Service so that I could travel to Marburg, Germany to spend the summer studying German. Last but not least, I am thankful for the unwavering support of my friends and family. My friends in Cincinnati, Wolfenbüttel, Mainz, and Marburg encouraged me and provided welcome distractions when necessary. My family – especially my mother, Rosemarie Delikta Smith and my brother and sister-in-law, Douglas and Erin Smith – has fostered my education since my earliest years. I am most grateful for their reassurances and confidence in me. This dissertation is dedicated to my mother and to the memories of my father, Ralph H. Smith, and grandmother, Veronika Delikta. vi Table of Contents Abstract…………………………………………..………………………………………..ii Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………..v List of Figures………………………………………………………………………..….viii Chapter One: Introduction………………………………………………………….……..1 1.1 Terminology…………………………………………………………………...2 1.2 Literature on Astronomy and Astrology………………………………….……5 1.3 Literature on Calendars………………………………………………………..8 1.4 Schreibkalender and Prognostica Astrologica………………………….……17 1.5 Methodology and Chapter Outlines…………………………….……….……25 Chapter Two: Authorities, Evidence, and Audience………………………………..……28 2.1 Authors and their Resources………………………………………….………29 2.2 Reception of the Schreibkalender and Prognostica………….……………….51 2.3 Mediums of Information Transfer…………………………….……………...64 2.4 Conclusion…………………………………………………….……………...68 Chapter Three: Calendars, Weather, and Climate………………………..………………70 3.1 Practical Understandings of the Weather and Climate………..………………73 3.2 Interpretations of the Natural World………………………….……………....78 3.3 Planetary Tables…………………………………………………………...…93 3.4 Climate Change………………………………………………………….….109 3.5 Conclusion…………………………………………………….…………….125 Chapter Four: Early Modern Medicine in Schreibkalender and Prognostica…..……....128 4.1 Early Modern Medicine………………………………………….………….131 4.2 Iatromathematics in the Schreibkalender and Prognostica…………..……...139 4.3 Conclusion…………………………………………………………….….....157 Chapter Five: Schreibkalender, Society, Culture, and Religion……………..………….160 5.1 Religion and the Natural World………………………………….………….162 5.2 Apocalypticism…………………………………………………………..…167 5.3 War and Peace………………………………………………………………182 5.4 Education……………………………………………………….…………...191 5.5 Household Tips……………………………………………………….…..…197 5.6 Histories…………………………………………………………………….204 Chapter Six: Conclusion………………………………………………….…….………215 Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………....221 vii List of Figures Figure 1: Listing for March in Expertus Rupertus Argutissimus’ 1686 Schreibkalender……....16 Figure 2: Page of Important Dates from Israel Hiebner’s 1656 Schreibkalender……………….19 Figure 3: Excerpt from