Contact-induced Grammatical Changes in Khuzestani Arabic A thesis submitted to the University of Manchester for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Humanities 1 2006 Maryam Shabibi School of Languages, Linguistics and Cultures 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract……………………………………………………………………………. 6 Declaration…………………………………………………………………………7 Acknowledgement………………………………………………………………… 8 Copyright Statement……………………………………………………………... 9 Abbreviations…………………………………………………………………….10 CHAPTER ONE: Introduction…………………………………...11 1.0 Language Contact……………………………………………………… 11 1.1 Background of the contact situation…………………………………… 11 1.1.1 Arabic in Khuzestan…………………………………………………….11 1.2 Bilingualism in the contact situation…………………………………... 12 1.3 Related Studies………………………………………………………… 13 1.4 The aim of the study…………………………………………………… 16 1.5 Organization of the thesis……………………………………………… 17 CHAPTER TWO: Theoretical Preliminaries……………………20 2.0 Introduction……………………………………………………………..20 2.1 Contact-induced change………………………………………………...20 2.1.1 Convergence…………………………………………………………… 25 2.1.1.1 Convergence and Borrowing…………………………………………... 28 3 2.1.2 Fusion…………………………………………………………………...30 2.1.3 Metatypy……………………………………………………………….. 31 2.1.4 Contact-Induced grammaticalization…………………………………... 35 2.1.5 MAT/ PAT replication………………………………………………….38 2.2 Hierarchies of contact-induced change…………………………………40 CHAPTER THREE: Grammar of Khuzestani Arabic………….47 3.0 Introduction……………………………………………………………. 47 3.1 Khuzestani Arabic (Kh. Arabic)………………………………………..47 3.2 Characteristic Features of Kh. Arabic…………………………………. 48 3.2.1 Lexicon………………………………………………………………… 48 3.2.2 Kh. Vs. other dialects of Arabic………………………………………..48 3.3 Phonology……………………………………………………………… 50 3.3.1 Vowels…………………………………………………………………. 50 3.3.1.1 Short vowels…………………………………………………………….50 3.3.1.2 Long vowels…………………………………………………………….51 3.3.1.3 Diphthongs……………………………………………………………... 51 3.3.2 Consonants……………………………………………………………... 53 3.3.2.1 Stops…………………………………………………………………….53 3.3.2.2 Fricatives………………………………………………………………..54 3.3.2.3 Other consonants………………………………………………………..55 3.4 Nominal Morphology…………………………………………………...56 3.4.1 Nouns…………………………………………………………………... 56 4 3.4.1.1 Number………………………………………………………………… 57 3.4.1.2 Definiteness……………………………………………………………. 58 3.4.2 Local relations and case roles………………………………………….. 59 3.4.3 Possession……………………………………………………………… 61 3.4.4 Pronouns……………………………………………………………….. 62 3.4.4.1 Personal pronouns ……………………………………………………... 62 3.4.5 Demonstratives and referentiality ……………………………………...63 3.4.6 Reflexives……………………………………………………………… 64 3.4.7 Interrogatives…………………………………………………………... 65 3.4.8 Indefinites……………………………………………………………… 66 3.4.9 Quantitatives…………………………………………………………… 68 3.4.10 Numerals……………………………………………………………….. 69 3.4.11 Adjectives……………………………………………………………… 70 3.4.11.1 Inflection……………………………………………………………….. 70 3.4.11.2 Comparison…………………………………………………………….. 71 3.4.12 Adverbs………………………………………………………………… 72 3.5 Verb morphology……………………………………………………….74 3.5.1 Verb derivation………………………………………………………… 74 3.5.1.1 Lexical derivation……………………………………………………… 74 3.5.1.2 Passive…………………………………………………………………..75 3.5.1.3 Person concord………………………………………………………….76 3.5.2 Verb inflection classes………………………………………………….76 3.5.2.1 Perfective Vs. Imperfective……………………………………………. 76 5 3.5.2.2 Tense and modality……………………………………………………..79 3.5.3 Modality………………………………………………………………... 80 3.5.4 Aspect………………………………………………………………….. 81 3.5.5 Negation………………………………………………………………... 82 3.5.6 Auxiliary verbs………………………………………………………… 84 3.6 Syntax………………………………………………………………….. 86 3.6.1 Simple sentences……………………………………………………......86 3.6.1.1 Declarative clauses……………………………………………………...86 3.6.1.2 Interrogative clauses…………………………………………………… 87 3.6.2 Complex sentences…………………………………………………….. 89 3.6.2.1 Coordination…………………………………………………………… 90 3.6.2.2 Subordination…………………………………………………………... 92 CHAPTER FOUR: Methods of Data Collection………………….95 4.0 Introduction……………………………………………………………..95 4.1 Current sociolinguistic situation……………………………………….. 95 4.2 Methods of collecting data……………………………………………...98 4.2.1 The Questionnaire: its design and format ……………………………...98 4.2.1.1 Selection of variables…………………………………………………...98 4.2.1.2 The format of the questionnaire………………………………………...100 4.2.1.3 Administration of the questionnaire…………………………………….102 4.2.1.4 Problems with the Questionnaire……………………………………….103 4.2.2 The interview method………………………………………………….. 104 6 4.3 Selection of Speakers…………………………………………………...106 4.3.1 Speakers’ general characteristics……………………………………….107 4.3.1.1 Gender…………………………………………………………………. 107 4.3.1.2 Education………………………………………………………………. 107 4.3.1.3 Profession……………………………………………………………….107 4.3.1.4 Age……………………………………………………………………... 108 4.4 Data Presentation and Analysis………………………………………... 108 CHAPTER FIVE: Attributive Constructions ………………109 5.0 Introduction……………………………………………………………..109 5.1 Properties of the Construct State (CS)………………………………….109 5.2 Adjectival Attribution (AA) in Arabic………………………………….114 5.3 Attribution in Persian…………………………………………………...115 5.3.1 The Persian Ezafe……………………………………………………… 115 5.4 Attribution in Kh. Arabic……………………………………………….118 5.4.1 The CS…………………………………………………………………. 118 5.4.2 Adjectival Attribution (AA)…………………………………………….118 5.4.3 Marker of attribution in Kh. Arabic…………………………………….121 5.4.3.1 The definite article /al-/ and Ezafe……………………………………...121 5.4.3.2 The feminine construct marker /t/ and Ezafe…………………………...126 5.5 Discussion ……………………………………………………………... 131 CHAPTER SIX: Definiteness Marking ………………………133 7 6.0 Introduction……………………………………………………………..133 6.1 An overview of the phenomenon……………………………………….134 6.2 Linguistic typology of Relative Clauses (RCs)………………………...135 6.2.1 The position of the head noun in the clause…………………………….136 6.2.2 Typology of RCs in Arabic……………………………………………..137 6.2.3 Typology of RCs in Persian…………………………………………….138 6.2.3.1 Restrictive RCs………………………………………………………… 139 6.2.3.2 Non-restrictive RCs……………………………………………………. 140 6.2.4 RCs in Kh. Arabic …………………………………………………….140 6.3 Definiteness marking in Arabic………………………………………..142 6.4 Erosion of the definite article, ‘A contact- induced phenomenon’?.......143 6.4.1 Loss of /al-/ in RCs…………………………………………………….143 6.4.2 Loss of /al-/ in attributive constructions……………………………….147 6.5 Conclusion……………………………………………………………... 149 CHAPTER SEVEN: MAT replication of Persian Discourse Elements …………………… 151 7.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………….. 151 7.1 Discourse Elements (DEs)…………………………………………...... 152 7.1.1 Definition and features…………………………………………………. 152 8 7.2 Models on motivation for using DEs among bilinguals……………...... 154 7.3 Use of Persian DEs in Kh. Arabic…………………………..…………. 158 7.3.1 Discourse Markers (DMs) …………………………………………….. 159 7.3.1.1 Markers of speaker initiation…………………………………………... 159 7.3.1.2 Fillers…………………………………………………………………... 162 7.3.2 Particles…….…………………………………………………………... 168 7.3.3 Subordinators…………………………………………………………... 178 7.3.3.1 Adverbial subordinators………………………………………………... 178 7.3.3.2 The complementizer/ relativizer /ke/…………………………………... 183 7.4 Conclusion……………………………………………………………... 189 CHAPTER EIGHT: Variation in Word Order ………………….. 192 8.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………….. 192 8.1 Basic, Unmarked and Dominant word order……………………………192 8.1.1 Criteria for the Unmarkedness of Word order Types………………….. 193 9 8.1.2 Basic and unmarked word order in spoken Arabic…………………….. 194 8.2 Word order in Spoken Arabic………………………………………….. 195 8.3 Sentence Typology…………………………………………………….. 197 8.3.1 Subject Position in a Sentence Structure………………………………. 199 8.3.1.1 Position of independent subjects and subject pronouns……………….. 200 8.3.1.2 Indefinite subjects and sentence-initial position……………………….. 203 8.3.2 Object-initial sentences………………………………………………… 205 8.3.2.1 Topic- prominent sentences……………………………………………. 206 8.3.2.2 Subject-prominent sentences……………………………………………208 8.4 SOV word order, a convergence phenomenon in Kh. Arabic…………. 209 8.5 Summary of the related studies………………………………………… 214 8.5.1 VSO or SVO Prominence?...................................................................... 214 8.6 Word order variation in Kh. Arabic……………………………………. 215 10 CHAPTER NINE: Conclusion……………………………………. 217 Bibliography………………………………………………………….. 224 Appendices…………………………………………………………… 233 ABSTRACT 11 This thesis explores the nature of a series of contact-induced changes in Khuzestani Arabic – a dialect spoken in southwest of Iran - under the influence of Persian (the official language of the country). My basic claim is that the distinctive grammatical features that this dialect of Arabic displays are the results of a wide range, long-term and intense contact with Persian. To achieve this aim and in order to interpret the nature of the contact phenomena two methods of data collection namely the questionnaire and the interview were used. The selection of the constructions to be tested in the questionnaire was based on indications of contact influencing particular constructions in Kh. Arabic, which were identified in a pilot investigation by the author. To support the data collected via the questionnaire and to allow every Kh. Arabic speaker – literate and illiterate – to have the chance to participate in the study for more genuine and reliable results, the interview method was also used. Results of the analysis of the collected data supported my claim and revealed that the tested constructions were indeed contact phenomena – cases of convergence - due to Persian influence. Analysis of the contact-induced changes revealed cases of direct borrowing (MAT) of grammatical morphemes