This article was downloaded by: [University of Bristol] On: 27 December 2014, At: 14:33 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK Ecology of Food and Nutrition Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/gefn20 The nutritional value of edible insects Sandra G.F. Bukkens a b a National Institute of Nutrition , Via Ardeatina 546, Rome, 00178, Italy E-mail: b University of Padua , Padua, Italy Published online: 31 Aug 2010. To cite this article: Sandra G.F. Bukkens (1997) The nutritional value of edible insects, Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 36:2-4, 287-319, DOI: 10.1080/03670244.1997.9991521 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03670244.1997.9991521 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. 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Published in The Netherlands Photocopying permitted by license only under license by Gordon and Breach Science Publishers Printed in India THE NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF EDIBLE INSECTS SANDRA G.F. BUKKENS National Institute of Nutrition, Rome, Italy and University of Padua, Padua, Italy (Received October 26, 1996) This paper provides an overview of the nutritional aspects of insect consumption (entomophagy) among indigenous populations. The nutritional quality of food insects is discussed with special emphasis on the role of food insects as a source of animal protein. Available data on the amino acid composition of the most common food insects are summarized, and the potential of insect protein to complement protein of various staple foods is analyzed. Micronutrient composition of insects is briefly discussed. KEY WORDS: Insects, entomophagy, nutrient composition, protein, essential amino acids, micronutrients. I. INTRODUCTION In many parts of Africa, Asia, South America and Australia a wide range of animal products are eaten that may not be common or known to researchers from Europe or North America. These animals include many different insects, such as locusts, grasshoppers, termites, ants, beetles, and caterpillars. The insects consumed Downloaded by [University of Bristol] at 14:33 27 December 2014 generally have a high protein content and may significantly contribute to the total protein intake of indigenous populations, at least during certain seasons of the year. However, thus far little attention has been paid to insect consumption in dietary surveys among indigenous populations. There may be several reasons for this. First, food insects are usually collected from the wild and often eaten raw on the spot, and this casual eating may go unnoticed to Address correspondence to: Ir. Sandra G.F. Bukkens, Istituto Nazionale della Nutrizione, Via Ardeatina 546,00178 Rome, Italy. E-mail: [email protected].. 287 288 S.G.F. BUKKENS observers from outside (Robson and Yen 1976, Posey 1987). Second, insect consumption is usually seasonal depending on the appearance of certain stages of the insect (Dufour 1987). Third, the attitude of outside observers that entomophagy is either a curiosity or simply repulsive may cause the indigenous populations to conceal their consumption of insects (DeFoliart 1989). In cultures where insect consumption is common, insects form a regular part of the diet, as a side dish, snack, or ingredient of composite dishes, whenever available during the year. Although generally insects are not merely eaten to avoid starvation, some studies show that insects are most often collected and consumed when other animal foods are available in very limited quantities, or not at all (Dufour 1987). Nevertheless, depending on the culture, some forms of insects are valued as delicacies in their own right, such as the Rhynchophorus larvae (Curculionidae) and alate ants (Formicidae) by the Tukanoan Indians in the Northwest Amazon (Dufour 1987). In this review, I focus on intentional insect consumption among indigenous populations in developing countries, and the role of insects in providing animal protein, essential amino acids and micronutrients to these populations. This is not to be taken that insects are not consumed in developed countries. On the contrary, in some developed countries, such as Japan, insect consumption is part of the traditional diet (Mitsuh'ashi, this issue). Insects are also consumed by certain immigrant groups in developed countries, for instance the Thai giant waterbug (Lethocerus indiens; Belostomatidae) is imported from Thailand and sold in California, USA (Pemberton 1988). Furthermore, several insect species have gained some popularity as a health food or fancy delicacy in countries such as the United States, Mexico and PR China. Last Downloaded by [University of Bristol] at 14:33 27 December 2014 but not least, some insects and insect fragments are eaten unin- tentionally by every single person in the form of foods of plant origin. II. INSECTS AS PART OF THE HUMAN DIET Selection of Insect Species for Consumption Why are certain insect species and stages consumed and others not? According to the optimal foraging theory, it is the overall efficiency NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF EDIBLE INSECTS 289 of foraging which will determine the popularity of insect species and stages in the diet of a society (Ardeshir 1990, Dufour 1987). In other words, the insect species and stages that are collected and consumed most commonly and in the largest quantities are those that are the most predictable resources in space (living in nests, feeding selectively on specific plants) and time and that have the highest nutritional value for human consumption. These species and stages are actively sought after and collected in large quantities in any single attempt. Some insect species may even be managed resources, such as the palm weevil (Rhynchophorus; Curculionidae) larvae that are literally 'harvested' from the pith of felled palms. Nevertheless, other species and stages less predictable in space and time or occurring in smaller aggregations are often collected opportunistically and in small quantities (Dufour 1987). In general, the stage of the life cycle collected is the largest form and soft-bodied (relative little exoskeleton) (Dufour 1987). For instance, for Coleóptera and Lepidoptera this is the larval stage, for Formicidae the female alates (eggs). Holt (1988) mentions that a common criterion as to whether an animal is, or is not, fit for human food is the food it lives upon. The great majority of insects live entirely upon vegetable matter in one form or another (and often on our most-valued vegetable crops) and thus are relatively clean feeders compared to commonly-consumed animals such as lobsters, eel and pig. Major Insects Consumed Insect consumption has been documented for various countries in the world. Most of the insects consumed in significant quantities Downloaded by [University of Bristol] at 14:33 27 December 2014 belong to one of the following six orders: Lepidoptera, including butterflies and moths, which are usually consumed in the larval stage (caterpillars), Coleóptera, or the beetles, also predominantly consumed in the larval stage ('grubs'), Orthoptera, including locusts, crickets, and grasshoppers, Isoptera, including termites, Hymenoptera, including ants, bees, and wasps, and Hemiptera (bugs) (Table I). Of course, Table I is far from exhaustive and many more insect species from different families and orders are known to be consumed, be it in less-important quantities. For instance, Meyer- Rochow (1973) documented the consumption of such insects as the 290 S.G.F. BUKKENS TABLE I Major orders and families of insects consumed by human populations and geographical areas of consumption. Common name Main families Area of consumption (reference) Order: Lepidoptera Butterflies and moths Saturnidae, Noctuidae, Angola (Santos Oliveira et al., 1976), (caterpillars) Notodontidae, Cossidae, Nigeria (Ashiru 1988), South African Bombycidae. Also, less Pedi Nation (Quin 1959), Sudan common, Limacodidae, (Dirar 1994), Zaire (Kodondi et al., Thaumetopoeidae, 1987a,b, Malaisse