THE SHAPING OF UNITED STATES BIODEFENSE POSTURE by Douglas R. Lewis A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of George Mason University in Partial Fulfillment of The Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Biodefense Committee: A1-u--11--QQ Director -~---"''''''-~''''';""",~,,~ ~"~"-'''''-- ... Department Chairperson Program Director Dean, College of Humanities and Social Sciences Date: (j~ dl d.-Ol"d- Spring Semester 2012 George Mason University Fairfax, VA The Shaping of United States Biodefense Posture A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at George Mason University By Douglas R. Lewis Master of Science Pennsylvania State University, 1997 Bachelor of Science United States Air Force Academy, 1991 Chairman: Trevor Thrall, Associate Professor College of Humanities and Social Sciences Spring Semester 2012 George Mason University Fairfax, VA Dedication This work is dedicated to my support team Cristina, Matthew and Cooper. Your encouragement, support and sacrifices made all the difference. Thank You “Do you not know that those who run in a race all run, but only one receives the prize? Run in such a way that you may win. Everyone who competes in the games exercises self-control in all things. They then do it to receive a perishable wreath, but we an imperishable.” 1 Corinthians 9: 24-25 ii Acknowledgments I would like to thank he members of my committee. Without their guidance, advice and knowledge this effort would not have been possible. I would also like to thank Ms. Janice F. Goldblum from the National Academy of Sciences and Mr. Jeffery K. Smart from US Army RDECOM for allowing me access to their archives. Finally, I would like to thank the Army for providing this opportunity. iii Table of Contents Page List of Tables .................................................................................................................... vii List of Abbreviations ....................................................................................................... viii Abstract ............................................................................................................................... x Ch1. Introduction ................................................................................................................1 U.S. Biodefense Capabilities: Not Ready For Prime Time .............................................2 Explaining the State of U.S. Biodefense Capabilities......................................................5 Argument and Outline of the Dissertation .....................................................................15 Ch 2. Explaining the Development of Biodefense Doctrine ..............................................18 Organizational Frames ...................................................................................................18 Bureaucratic Politics ......................................................................................................31 Realism ..........................................................................................................................38 Testing............................................................................................................................42 Structure .........................................................................................................................46 Scoring ...........................................................................................................................48 Sources ...........................................................................................................................49 Conclusions ....................................................................................................................52 Ch 3. Biological Agents, Chemical Agents and Current U.S. Defensive Capabilities .....54 Confusion in Terminology .............................................................................................54 Weapon Characteristics .................................................................................................56 Similarities and Differences ...........................................................................................67 Current Defensive Systems ............................................................................................78 Conclusions – Chapter Three .........................................................................................84 Ch 4. 1939-1946, The World War Two Period .................................................................86 iv Historical Setting ...........................................................................................................86 Organizational Frames and Biodefense, 1939-46 ..........................................................94 Imperialism and Biodefense, 1939-46 ...........................................................................99 Realism and Biodefense, 1939-46 ...............................................................................109 Conclusions – The World War Two Period .................................................................115 Ch 5. 1946 – 1970, The Rise and End of the U.S. Offensive Program ...........................117 Historical Setting .........................................................................................................117 Organizational Frames and Biodefense, 1946-70 ........................................................122 Bureaucratic Politics and Biodefense, 1946-70 ...........................................................150 Realism and Biodefense, 1946-70 ...............................................................................168 The Decision to End the Biological Program ..............................................................186 Conclusion - 1946-1970 ...............................................................................................193 Ch 6. 1971 – 1991, The Cold War to the First Gulf War ...............................................196 Historical Setting .........................................................................................................196 Organizational Frames and Biodefense, 1971-91 ........................................................201 Bureaucratic Politics and Biodefense, 1971-91 ...........................................................229 Realism and Biodefense, 1971-91 ...............................................................................238 Conclusions – 1971-1991 ............................................................................................251 Ch 7. 1991- Today, U.N. Sanctions, Terrorism, and Anthrax in the Mail.......................254 Historical Setting .........................................................................................................254 Organizational Frames and Biodefense, 1991 - Today ................................................259 Bureaucratic Politics and Biodefense, 1991 - Today ...................................................294 Realism and Biodefense, 1991-Present........................................................................311 Conclusions – 1991- Present ........................................................................................325 Ch 8. Results ....................................................................................................................329 Findings........................................................................................................................329 Criticisms – Alternative Explanations .........................................................................342 Conclusions ..................................................................................................................349 Ch 9. Significance and Recommendations ......................................................................351 v Significance – Impacts on the program .......................................................................351 Recommendations ........................................................................................................369 Future Research ...........................................................................................................373 Last Thoughts...............................................................................................................373 Appendix – Additional Information .................................................................................376 Works Cited .....................................................................................................................381 vi List of Tables Table Page Table 1: Military Attendance at WBC, ABC and DEF Committee Meetings ................ 106 Table 2: Chemical Corps Research Program Totals ....................................................... 124 Table 3: Summary of Tests Performed Under Project 112, 1963-74 ............................. 180 Table 4: Chemical and Biological RTDE Programs 1995-2007 .................................... 276 Table 5: Predominant Behaviors by Threat and Organizational Age ............................. 338 vii List of Abbreviations AMC ……………………………………………………………Army Material Command BIDS ……………………………………………..Biological Integrated Detection System BW ………………………………………………………...Biological Weapon or Warfare BWC …………………………………………………….Biological Weapons Convention CB ……………………………………………………………………Chemical/Biological CBDP ……………………………………………..Chemical Biological Defense Program