CONTENTS Contents Internal Assessment The historical debate: Did Hitler have a clear Your guide for Paper 1: The Move to Global War plan for achieving his foreign policy goals when he took power in 1933? Case study 1: Japanese expansionism in East Asia 2.3 Italian expansion, 1933–1940 1.1 The origins of nationalism and militarism What factors had an impact on Italy’s foreign in Japan policy in the 1930s? Japan after 1990 Italian foreign policy, 1935–39 Japan in the 1920s Why did Italy intervene in the Spanish Civil War 1.2 The actions of Japan, 1931–41 in 1936–39 Causes of expansion What was Italy’s roleole duringdu the Sudetenland crisis in Septembermber 1938?193 Events in Manchuria, 1931 Why did Italyly invade AlbaniaAlban in April 1939? What were the results of the Manchurian crisis? Italy andd the Second World WarW Years of turmoil: The descent into “the Dark Valley” Changingnging diplomatic alignments ini EuropeEurop after 193333 1.3 How did the international community respond to Japan’s actions? Germany’s challenges to the post-warpost-w settlements, 1933–381933 The League of Nations’ response to events in Manchuria 1931–36 2.5 German expansion,expa 1938–401938–4 The response of the League and Europe to Challengingllenging the post-war settlements after 1937 events after 1932 Beyond the TreatyTre of Versailles:V The liquidation The response of China to events after 193232 of CzechoslovakiaCzechoslovaki The USA’s response to Japanese actionsns 1931–3737 German expansion:expansio Poland The USA’s response to events 1937–387–38 Changing internationalinte alignments: The Pact of Steel,S May 1939 Why did the USA change its policyolicy towardstowar Japan after 1938? The outbreakout of war What was the reaction off the USA to the attackat 2.6 InternationalInte responses to Italian on Pearl Harbor? aggression,a 1935–40 What was the policy of appeasement and why Case study 2: Germanyany and Italiantalian expansionexpan was it pursued by Britain in the 1930s? 2.1 The origin off Fascism in Italy and its impact How was international response to aggression on foreignn policy in the 1930s affected by the weaknesses of the Background:ound: Long-term causes of expansionexpansi League of Nations? Mussolini’ssolini’s rise to power What was the impact of US foreign policy on the international response to the expansionist What was the impact of the First WorWorld War on powers? Italy, 1915–18?5–18? What was the impact of Soviet foreign policy on What is Fascism?sm? the international response to the expansionist Why did support for Fascism grow in Italy after powers? the First World War?r? DRAFTWhat was the international response to the How did Mussolini consolidate his power? Italian invasion of Abyssinia in 1935–36? What factors influenced Mussolini’s foreign The end of appeasement of Mussolini’s Italy policy? 2.7 The international response to German How successful was Mussolini’s foreign policy in aggression, 1933–40 the 1920s? The Second World War: The historical debate 2.2 The origins of Nazism in Germany and its impact of foreign policy Why did support for Nazism grow after the First World War? What factors allows Hitler to become a dictator? 3 2.4 German challenges to the post-war settlements, 1933–38 Conceptual understanding Key concepts ➔ Causation ➔ Consequence ➔ Continuity Key questions ➔ Examine the ways in which Hitler challenged the post-war settlement.nt. ➔ Analyse the consequences of Hitler’s actions for the internationalal situation.situa Timeline Hitler becomes German Chancellor 1933193 January February Hitler introducesint a programme of Hitler leaves the Disarmament Conference rearmamentFTmam and announces the intention to withdraw October Germany from the League of Nations 1934 JanuaryJanu Germany signs a non-aggression pact with Poland Saar Plebiscite 1935 JanuarynuaryAFA MarchMarc Stresa Agreement Anglo–German Naval Treaty June Italian invasionsion of Abyssinia RAR1936 March Germany remilitarizes the Rhineland Hitler sendss military support to Franco’sFranco’ June nationalists in Spain August Hitler’s Four Year Plan is drafted Anti-Comintern Pact is made with Japan Rome–Berlin Axis DRD November 1937 Hossbach Memorandum 177 2 As we have seen, Hitler’s main foreign policy aim after achieving power was to destroy the Versailles Peace Settlement, which had to be carried out alongside rearmament. This was achieved between 1933 and 1938 and, in the process, the stage was set for further territorial claims and the outbreak of global war in 1939. Changing diplomatic alignments in Europe after 1933 The response of Britain and France to his actionstions after 1933 would be key for Hitler and his goal of overturninging the TreatyTrea of Versailles; Germany’s position in Europe was still vulnerablevulne and iti remained under the constraints of the Treaty of Versailles.ailles. FortunatelyFortu for Hitler, the international situation after 1933 worked to his advantage.ad Britain Britain was pre-occupieded not only with the economic crisis but also by events in the Far East,st,, where it was worriedworr about JapaneseJapan expansion. Its resources were alreadyady overstretched,overstretche with its mainmai priority being the safety of the Britishritish Empire.re. Many BritishB politicianspoliticia also considered the Treaty of Versaillesrsailles to be unfair and supported ssome redress of “legitimate grievances”.es”.”. Many right-wing politicianspoliticia in BBritain were also afraid of the communistunist dictator, Stalin, and had sympsymsympathy with Hitler, who they also saww as a bufferfer to the spread of commucommunism from the East. The Little Entente France Francece was very concernedconce by the possible German threat but was too This was a series of weak to act on its own, especiallyesp after the failure of its 1923 intervention treaties between Romania,a, in the Ruhr. It was also ppolitically divided, following a series of weak Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia,slavia, governments, and hahad major economic problems. Lacking support from the which were concludedded from USA or Britain in tthe task of preserving the Versailles settlement, it built a 1920 to 1921, and aimed tot defensivedefe line oof fortresses along the Maginot Line between 1929 and 1938. prevent Austriastria and Hungary It also develoddeveloped alliances with countries on Germany’s eastern borders: from regainingaining territory lost Polandland anaand “The Little Entente” countries – Czechoslovakia, Romania and after thehe FirstFirs World War. YugoslYugoslavia.l TheT USA The economic depression meant that the USA was still focused on DRAFTDRdomestic concerns and was unlikely to change its isolationist stance. Other factors also worked in Hitler’s favour: ● The international economic situation was encouraging national insularity rather than collective security. ● The memories of the First World War were still acute, and the horror of this war made many determined to take any measures necessary to prevent another war. ● The need to avoid another war was reinforced by the military weakness of Britain and France at this time. ● Britain and France were unable to agree on a common policy for dealing with Hitler. 178 CHAPTER 2.4: GERMAN CHALLENGES TO THE POST-WAR SETTLEMENTS, 1933–38 ● The League of Nation’s perceived Daring Lithuania N failure to deal effectively with Japanese East Prussia expansion in Manchuria was a blow to R. Ebe Polish both the Washington System and to the Holland Corridor R. Oder 0 100 League itself. Belgium Poland Germany km ● R. Seine The revision of the Treaty of Versailles France USSR had already begun; Britain and France evacuated the Rhineland in 1929–30 Czechoslovakia Austria and German reparation payments were Switzerland Hungary effectively cancelled at the Lausanne Conference of 1932. R. Rhone Italy R.R Danube However, as the historian Zara Steiner Romania Maginot Line writes, “even allowing for the breakdown of YugosYugoslavia the international regime, Hitler moved with Germans living outside Germanyrmany Bulgaria a speed and ultimate purpose that clearly distinguished him from his predecessors” (Steiner, 2011: 95). T Germany’s challenges to the post-warwar settlements, 1933–38 Although the international situation favouredd Hitler’s aims, he still had to be careful to avoid an international backlash.klash. He thus followed a cautious policy. Publicly, Hitler claimedd that hee desired only peace, FT and he worked carefully to defuse anyny potential opposition. However, his actions over the next five yearss undermined collective security:s hhe worked to withdraw Germany from multilateral commitmentscommit thathat might limit his action, he isolatedolated France by undermining existiexisting alliances, and, at the samee time, he negotiated alliances withwi Britain and Italy. Alongside these actions,ons, Hitler was able to effectively to challenge the Treaty of Versaillesles and too increase the prestige and power of his own dictatorship and off Germany within Europe.E Challengingging the Treaty of Versailles:Versailles WithdrawalW from the Disarmamentament Conference Article 8 of the Covenant of the LeagueLeaguLe of Nations had demanded that national armamentsrmaments be “reduced“reduce“redu to the lowest point consistent with national safety”ety” However, thetht difficulties in implementing an international disarmamentmament policypo meant that it took until 1932 for an international conferenceceDRAFT to be organized. When the Disarmament Conference finally convened in Geneva in 1933, there was still little consensus on how disarmament could be achieved. France, in particular, was unwilling to disarm with the new threat of Nazism on its borders. The events unfolding at the same time in Manchuria were also not conducive to thinking about disarmament. Furthermore, it was clear that Britain and France did not agree about the way that Germany should be treated, with Britain indicating that it was prepared to make concessions to Germany. German governments prior to Hitler had requested parity of armaments, arguing that Germany would participate only if other countries reduced 179 2 their armaments to Germany’s level, or allowed Germany to rearm to theirs.