UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI August 1, 20 03 I, Kirsten Grant Lupinski , hereby submit this as part of the requirements for the degree of: Doctor of Education (Ed.D.) in: Educational Foundations It is entitled: Cultural Differences in Body Image: The Perspectives of European American, African American and Asian American College Women Approved by: Patricia O’Reilly Annette Hemmings Lanthan Camblin Amy Bernard Cultural Differences in Body Image: The Perspectives of European American, African American and Asian American College Women Division of Research and Advanced Studies of the University of Cincinnati In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTORATE OF EDUCATION (Ed.D.) In the Department of Educational Foundations of the College of Education 2003 By Kirsten Grant Lupinski B.S. Public Health, University of North Carolina, 1993 M.S. Health Education, University of Kentucky, 1996 ABSTRACT Kirsten Grant Lupinski University of Cincinnati- Educational Foundations Committee Chair: Dr. Patricia O'Reilly, PhD, Professor, Educational Foundations Dissertation Title: Cultural Differences in Body Image: The Perspectives of European American, African American and Asian American College Women Cultural Differences in Body Image: The Perspectives of European American, African American and Asian American College Women is a single university case study, conducted at a large Midwestern public university. The sample population consisted of European American, African American and Asian American women between the ages of 18 and 25 and who have lived in the U.S. for at least the past 10 years. The sampling was based on comparable case selection in which the three ethnic groups were compared on their body image and levels of body satisfaction. The quantitative portion of this study consisted of administering the Young Women’s Experiences with Body Weight and Shape assessment, created in 1997 by M.E. Delaney et al. There were a total of 450 women surveyed (278 European American, 148 African American and 24 Asian American). The qualitative portion of this study consisted of 3 semi-structured focus groups; 1 European American, 1 African American and 1 Asian American. A total of 28 women participated in the focus groups. The purpose of this study was to obtain information from college-age women representing three different ethnicities with regard to their body image, body shape, appearance and related factors. The findings from this study will provide the health education profession with valuable data and information on body image from a cultural perspective. In addition, body image prevention/intervention programming that addresses women based on their ethnic background can be developed using the information and data from this study. A One-Way ANOVA and Tukey Post Hoc test were conducted to identify differences between the three groups on the assessment. Patterns and themes were coded and analyzed for the information obtained during the focus groups. Results from the assessment and the focus groups, literature findings, feminism and cultural studies theory were triangulated and conclusions drawn. African American women expressed the greatest level of body satisfaction on the 5 subscales of the assessment and these findings were supported by the information provided from the 3 focus groups. Copyright @ 2003 Kirsten Grant Lupinski 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES 6 LIST OF FIGURES 7 CHAPTER 1: STATEMENT OF PROBLEM 8 Problem Description 8 Purpose and Objectives 12 Limitations of Study 13 Assumptions 13 Significance of the Problem 14 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 16 Introduction 16 Body Dissatisfaction in American Society 17 Body Image: A Big Issue in American Society 18 History of Women’s Ideal Body Images 20 Obsession with Thinness 24 Contributing Factors to Body Image Development 28 Social Comparisons 29 Friends and Family Influence 30 Identification with Mothers 31 Parental Influences 33 Socioeconomic Background 34 Sexual Abuse and Body Image 35 Body Image in Different Ethnicities/Cultures 36 African American Women and Body Image: Less Dissatisfaction 37 African American Women and Body Image: Similar Dissatisfaction 42 Asian American Women and Body Image 44 Why are There Differences Between Ethnicities? 50 Why are African American Women Under Reported? 52 African American Cultural Beliefs: Protective Factors 54 Feminist Theory 58 Patriarchy and Capitalism 59 The Beauty Myth 60 The Role of Advertising 62 The Diet Industry 63 Cosmetic Surgery 64 Media and Advertising 65 Hunger and Eating Issues 66 What is Feminism? 67 Foucalt: What is Feminine? 68 Gender Roles 70 Racism: An Added Injustice 74 Cultural Studies Theory 76 2 Advertising and Media: Contributors to Body Dissatisfaction 76 What’s on Television? 78 Media: Teaches Gender Roles 79 The Influence of Magazines 83 Television: What’s on and Who’s in Charge? 85 Body Image Prevention/Intervention Programs 92 Summary/Conclusion 94 CHAPTER 3: METHODS 96 Introduction 96 Purpose of Study 97 Research Questions 100 Research Design 100 Quantitative Assessment Design 100 Factor 1- Weight Dissatisfaction 102 Factor 2- Slimness As Quality of Life 102 Factor 3- Interpersonal Messages Regarding Slimness 102 Factor 4- Rejecting the Societal Value of Thinness 103 Factor 5- Valuing Exercise 103 Qualitative Focus Group Design 106 Reliability 107 Validity 107 Population and Sample 108 Quantitative Assessment Participants 108 Qualitative Focus Group Participants 108 Figure 1 110 Figure 2 111 Data Collection Procedures 112 Quantitative Data Collection 112 Qualitative Data Collection 112 Data Analysis 113 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS 115 Introduction 115 Demographic Characteristics of Quantitative Survey Participants 115 Table 1 116 Table 2 117 Quantitative Assessment Results 118 Results of Five Subscales 118 Table 3 120 Results of Each Survey Item 121 Table 4 122 Table 5 124 Table 6 126 Table 7 131 One-Way ANOVA: Comparisons Between Groups 133 Table 8 134 Tukey Post Hoc: Multiple Comparisons Between Groups 135 3 Subscale 1- Weight Dissatisfaction 135 Subscale 2- Slimness As Quality of Life 135 Subscale 3- Interpersonal Messages Regarding Slimness 136 Subscale 4- Rejecting Societal Value of Thinness 136 Subscale 5- Valuing Exercise 136 Table 9 138 Summary of Quantitative Survey 139 Qualitative Focus Group Comments/Results 139 Demographics of Focus Group Participants 139 Researcher Comments on Focus Groups 140 Figure 3 142 Figure 4 143 Figure 5 144 Researcher Comments on Asian American Focus Group 145 Researcher Comments on African American Focus Group 145 Researcher Comments on European American Focus Group 146 Qualitative Focus Group Questions/Results 146 What is Body Image? 146 What is the Ideal Body Image in Mainstream Society? 147 What is the Ideal Body Image in your Culture? 148 What Role Does Food Play in your Culture? 150 What are the Characteristics of an Attractive Woman? 150 Does Thinness Equal Success? 152 What is your General Level of Body Satisfaction? 154 Is There Anything You Would Like To Change About Your Body? 156 Do You Exercise? And Why 159 Do You Feel the Media Influences Your Body Image? 162 What Influence Does Your Family Have on Your Body Image? 166 What Influence Do Your Friends Have on Your Body Image? 169 Did Growing Up in An African American Community Have Protective Factors? 171 What Would You Recommend For a Culturally Sensitive Body Image Program? 172 CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION 174 Introduction 174 Weight Dissatisfaction 175 Slimness As Quality of Life 180 Interpersonal Messages About Body Image 188 Rejecting the Societal Messages of Thinness 196 The Value of Exercise 202 Conclusions From This Study 205 Implications For Future Research 208 Summary 211 4 REFERENCE LIST 213 APPENDICES 245 APPENDIX A: EXISITNG BODY IMAGE PREVENTION PROGRAMS 246 APPENDIX B: QUANTITATIVE ASSESSMENT 247 APPENDIX C: QUANTITATIVE ASSESSMENT SUBSCALES 251 APPENDIX D: QUANTITATIVE ASSESSMENT FACTOR LOADING OF EACH ITEM 253 APPENDIX E: DEVELOPMENT OF QUANTITATIVE ASSESSMENT 255 APPENDIX F: ASSESSMENTS CONSIDERED FOR STUDY 256 APPENDIX G: ORIGINAL QUALITATIVE INTERVIEW GUIDE 262 APPENDIX H: FINAL QUALITATIVE INTERVIEW GUIDE 264 APPENDIX I: FOCUS GROUP INSTRUCTIONS 266 APPENDIX J: EXPERT PANEL ON BODY IMAGE 268 APPENDIX K: TRUSTWORTHINESS OF THE DATA 269 APPENDIX L: RESEARCHER REFLEXIVITY 271 APPENDIX M: INFORMED CONSENT FOR FOCUS GROUPS 273 APPENDIX N: QUALITATIVE DATA- MATRIX DISPLAY 275 APPENDIX O: ASIAN AMERICAN FOCUS GROUP PARTICIPANT DESCRIPTIONS 280 APPENDIX P: AFRICAN AMERICAN FOCUS GROUP PARTICIPANT DESCRIPTIONS 2281 APPENDIX Q: EUROPEN AMERICAN FOCUS GROUP PARTICIPANT DESCRIPTIONS 282 5 LIST OF TABLES TABLE 1: Ethnicity Frequency Distribution of Sample 116 TABLE 2: Ethnicity Frequency Distribution of Population 117 TABLE 3: Descriptives of Five Subscales 120 TABLE 4: Frequency Distribution for Each Statement 122 6 TABLE 5: Frequency Distribution For Each Statement-Five Categories (Percentages) 124 TABLE 6: Frequency Distribution For Each Statement- Three Categories (Percentages) 126 TABLE 7: Responses to Each Statement on Survey 131 TABLE 8: ANOVA Subscale Results 134 TABLE 9: ANOVA-Tukey Post Hoc Comparisons Between Groups 138 LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE 1: Sample Frequency Distribution- Graph 1110 FIGURE 2: Population Frequency Distribution- Graph 111 FIGURE 3: Asian American Focus Group Room-Map 142 FIGURE 4: African American Focus Group Room-Map 143 FIGURE 5: European American Focus Group Room-Map 144 7 CHAPTER 1 Statement of Problem Problem Description Body image, in particular body dissatisfaction