Cultural Music Perspectives: Native American, African American, and Latin American Music in the United States ©Dr. John C. Webb Professor of Music The University of Texas at Tyler Music of the Americas Fall 2014 Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 i Table of Contents Topic Page INTRODUCTION 1 Why This Book Exists 1 A Definition of Culture 1 Uncertainty 4 NATIVE AMERICAN MUSIC IN THE UNITED STATES 6 “More Than an Afterthought” 6 A Growing and Diverse Ethnic Group 6 Native American Origin “Theories” 7 Origins According to Native American Oral Tradition 8 Mound Builders – The Unknown Civilization 8 Cultural Diffences and the “Noble Savage” 11 Early Colonization to Wounded Knee 13 Scalping 14 Traditional Warfare Style 16 1763-1889 16 The Ghost Dance 23 The Wounded Knee Massacre 26 The Dark Ages after 1890 28 Indian Blood Policy, Cultural Genocide 28 Indian “Offenses” 28 Attempt to End the Reservation System (1953) 30 Summing up the Genocide 30 Education for Native Americans 31 Cultural Traditions 31 Three Definitions of Spirit 32 The Medicine Wheel 33 The Sacred Circle 35 The Four Directions 35 The Pipe 35 A Typical Pipe Ceremony 37 The Natural World 40 Native American Herbs 40 Gender Roles 44 Respect for Elders 45 Leadership Roles 45 The Sweat Ceremony 45 The Naming Ceremony 47 The Vision Quest 48 Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 ii Clans (Totems) 48 The Sun Dance 52 Masks and Paint 52 The Dream Catcher 54 Indian Time 55 Native American Spirituality 57 Musical Terms 60 Traditional Native American Musical Purpose and “Composition” 62 The Role of Dance 63 Traditional Musical Instruments 64 Vocals 65 The Drum 67 Drum Construction 69 Pulse, Meter, and Rhythms 70 Rhythmic Relationships of Drums and Vocals 71 Rattles/Shakers/Bells 72 Organization and Structure 72 Flutes and other Aerophones 73 Unity and Diversity of Tribal Nations 77 The Northern Pow Wow 78 The Pow Wow Committee 79 The Spiritual Advisor 79 The Head Staff 80 Physical Set up 81 The Drum Group 82 The Role of the Drum 82 Northern Pow Wow Songs 83 The Grand Entry 84 Invocation, Flag Songs, Veterans and Sneak Up Dances 87 The Ojibwe Nation 89 The Sioux Nation 90 Specific Dances and Regalia of the Northern Pow Wow 90 Men’s Traditional 90 The Grass Dance 94 Men’s Fancy 96 The Switch Dance 97 Women’s Traditional 97 Women’s Fancy Shawl 100 Jingle Dress 102 Social Dances 104 The Hoop Dance 104 Other Pow Wow Songs 105 Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 iii Pow Wow Representatives 106 The Giveaway 106 The Feast 107 Pow Wow Protocol 108 Ojibwe Musical Styles 110 Current Trends, Drum Groups 116 Thoughts about Dancing 116 Sun Dance Songs 117 Southern Pow Wows and Dance Styles 118 Gourd Dances 119 Southern Straight Dance 120 Women’s Southern Traditional 120 Ladies’ Southern Cloth Dance 121 Ladies’ Traditional Buckskin Dance 121 Oklahoma Tribes 122 The Cherokee Traditional Ways 126 Relationships with Whites 131 The Cherokee Today 133 Music and Dance of the Cherokee 135 The Hopi 139 Hopi Religion, Music, and Ceremonies 142 The Dine (Navajo) 148 Navajo Religion, Music, and Ceremonies 150 The Nde (Apache) 155 Apache Religion, Music, and Ceremonies 156 The Northwest Coast and the Arctic 162 The Peyote Ceremony 163 The American Indian Movement 169 The Re-occupation of Wounded Knee 169 Leonard Peltier 171 Sports Logos and Mascots 174 Spearfishing 179 Early Efforts to Reclaim Rights 172 Treaty Background 180 The Voight Decision and “Reserved Rights” 180 Protests and Violence 181 Conservation and Restocking 181 The Real Problem 183 Native American Music Today 187 AFRICAN AMERICAN MUSIC IN THE UNITED STATES 198 Africa - The Mother Country 198 Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 iv The Impact of African Music 199 African Traditional Music 200 African Instruments 201 African Drumming Styles 207 Vocals and Melody 208 The Griot 209 African Stylistic Characteristics 211 Dance and Movement 212 Music in Africa Today 213 Forced Migration 215 The Effect of Slavery in the U.S. 215 The Great Awakening 219 Minstrelsy 220 Jim Crow 225 Al Jolsen 226 African American Contributions to Classical Music 227 Field Hollers and Work Songs 231 Spirituals 234 Gospel 236 Four Main Branches of Modern Gospel Music 238 Ragtime 242 Dixieland 249 Buddy Bolden 252 Migration 253 The Dixieland Band 254 Origin of the term “Jazz” 255 Louis Armstrong (and Others) 256 The Swing Era 258 Bebop 264 Cool Jazz 268 Third Stream 269 Hard Bop and Funky Jazz 269 Modal Jazz 272 John Coltrane 274 Free Jazz 274 Fusion and Jazz-Rock 277 Smooth Jazz 279 Vocal Jazz Developments 280 Jazz Today and Tomorrow 280 The Blues of the Mississippi Delta 283 The Land Where the Blues Began 284 Singin’ the Blues 286 Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 v Interaction Between Voice and Instruments 291 Altering Sounds 291 The Church and the Blues 293 Blues Melodies 294 Instrumental Characteristics 294 Robert Johnson 296 Urbanizing the Blues 297 Boogie Woogie, Crooners, Rhythm and Blues, Early Rock and Roll 301 Doo Wop 312 A New Decade of Change 317 Motown 317 Blues after Rock and Roll 329 Ray Charles 330 Memphis Soul 332 Jimi Hendrix 336 Funk 337 Disco 341 1980's R&B 346 The Emergence of the Hip Hop Culture and Rap 350 Termz 352 Early Developments of Hip Hop 353 Hip Hop of the 1990s 367 Jazz Rap (Acid Jazz/Jazz Hop) 367 Urban Soul 369 East Coast Rap 371 Gangsta Rap (West Coast) 373 Progressive Rap 376 Sophisticated Hip Hop 379 Instrumental Hip Hop 380 White Rap 382 Some “Early” Hip Hop Groups 384 Hip-hop and the Digital Producer 392 Hip Hop 2000’s 392 Instrumental Hip-hop, 2000’s 395 British Styles of the 2000’s 396 World-hop 397 Crunk and Snap Music 397 Glitch Hop and Wonky Music 398 Decline in Sales 398 Innovation and Revitalization 400 Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 vi LATIN AMERICAN MUSIC IN THE UNITED STATES 403 Complex and Diverse Cultures 403 Flamenco 404 Argentina 413 The Tango 418 The Andes ` 420 Brazil 430 Native American Origins 431 The African Diaspora in Brazil 431 Macumba 433 Origin of the Samba 435 Carnival 436 The Batería 438 Capoeira 447 Contemporary Samba 450 Bossa Nova 452 The Girl From Ipanema 456 MPB 459 Colombia 461 Musica Tropícal 466 Mexico 469 Mariachi 469 Ranchera, Tex-Mex, Norteño, Tejano 480 Conjuntos (groups) 481 The Orquesta 486 Chicken Scratch 490 Banda 491 The Latin Tinge 497 Latin American Influence in U.S. Rock Bands 499 The Caribbean 506 Haiti: The Music of Vodou - The Primal Roots of Jazz 506 Rara 520 The Dominican Republic 522 Reggaeton in the Dominican Republic 528 Trinidad/Tobago 529 Soca, Rapso 535 Steel Drums 538 Puerto Rico 542 Jíbaro 545 The Bomba and Plena 546 Puerto Rican Pop Music 548 Reggaeton in Puerto Rico 551 Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 vii Cuba 553 Castro and Cuban Exiles 561 Timba 563 Buena Vista Social Club 564 Defining Salsa (Cuba, Puerto Rico, and New York) 539 Salsa Rhythm and General Instrumentation 565 Origin and Development of Salsa 566 Latin Jazz 573 Jamaica 577 Rastafarianism 578 Mento and Jamaican Calypso 582 Ska 584 Rock Steady 585 Reggae 587 Bob Marley 590 Dancehall and Ragga 591 Zouk Music from Guadaloupe and Martinique 594 Dedication 595 Cultural Music Perspectives © Introduction Why This Book Exists Boozhoo! Greetings! If you are reading this, you are probably taking the course “Music of the Americas”. Through these readings and the class, I hope you will gain some perspectives regarding the significant contributions of the culture and music of Native Americans, African Americans, and Latin Americans in the U.S. Much of the music covered is not studied in university music courses, yet is disctinctly AMERICAN MUSIC! While a number of books on these topics exist (typically written by ethnomusicologists), most cover only one genre or part of one genre. The great majority of books on Native American music are written by Anglos from a non- indigenous perspective. In our text, information in the first section comes largely from Native Americans themselves, as I was fortunate to have been given direct teachings that helped me offer information in a simple and respectful way. With African American music, there are many books on jazz, soul, hip hop, gospel, classical composers, etc., but few cover all of these fields in a concise, easy-to understand methodology. Having performed music in these genres enables me to present a participant’s view of the music, with the intention of making it easy to understand. Books on Latin American music usually focus on one Latin American country or regional area. The few books that cover all of Latin America do not necessarily address the relevance of the music to developments in the U.S. Hopefully what is presented here will spark some interest about the music of these vibrant musical cultures. A Definition of Culture If we’re studying cultural music, it makes sense to analyze what culture is! Given is a “working” definition created from students in past classes: Culture is a learned, shared, changeable, diverse, and cumulative experience that continues all through our life. Each person's cultural orientation influences what is perceived as reality, both individually and socially. It is passed down from each generation, changing and adapting over time. Culture is neither rigid nor static, and within its boundaries there is generally broad diversity. Some disparate cultures can coexist peacefully while other ethnocultural groups have long-standing conflicts. Culture can define who its members recognize as an ally or as an enemy. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 2 Our biological, psychological, social, spiritual functions determine our human activities.