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Cultural Perspectives:

Native American, African American, and Latin American Music in the

©Dr. John C. Webb Professor of Music The University of Texas at Tyler

Music of the Americas Fall 2014 Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 i

Table of Contents

Topic Page

INTRODUCTION 1 Why This Book Exists 1 A Definition of Culture 1 Uncertainty 4 NATIVE AMERICAN MUSIC IN THE UNITED STATES 6 “More Than an Afterthought” 6 A Growing and Diverse Ethnic Group 6 Native American Origin “Theories” 7 Origins According to Native American Oral Tradition 8 Mound Builders – The Unknown Civilization 8 Cultural Diffences and the “Noble Savage” 11 Early Colonization to Wounded Knee 13 Scalping 14 Traditional Warfare Style 16 1763-1889 16 The Ghost 23 The Wounded Knee Massacre 26 The Dark Ages after 1890 28 Indian Blood Policy, Cultural Genocide 28 Indian “Offenses” 28 Attempt to End the Reservation System (1953) 30 Summing the Genocide 30 Education for Native Americans 31 Cultural Traditions 31 Three Definitions of Spirit 32 The Medicine Wheel 33 The Sacred Circle 35 The Four Directions 35 The Pipe 35 A Typical Pipe Ceremony 37 The Natural World 40 Native American Herbs 40 Gender Roles 44 Respect for Elders 45 Leadership Roles 45 The Sweat Ceremony 45 The Naming Ceremony 47 The Vision Quest 48 Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 ii

Clans (Totems) 48 The 52 Masks and Paint 52 The Dream Catcher 54 Indian Time 55 Native American Spirituality 57 Musical Terms 60 Traditional Native American Musical Purpose and “Composition” 62 The Role of Dance 63 Traditional Musical Instruments 64 Vocals 65 The Drum 67 Drum Construction 69 Pulse, Meter, and 70 Rhythmic Relationships of Drums and Vocals 71 Rattles/Shakers/Bells 72 Organization and Structure 72 Flutes and other Aerophones 73 Unity and of Tribal Nations 77 The Northern 78 The Pow Wow Committee 79 The Spiritual Advisor 79 The Head Staff 80 Physical Set up 81 The Drum Group 82 The Role of the Drum 82 Northern Pow Wow Songs 83 The Grand Entry 84 Invocation, Flag Songs, Veterans and Sneak Up 87 The Nation 89 The Nation 90 Specific Dances and Regalia of the Northern Pow Wow 90 Men’s Traditional 90 The 94 Men’s Fancy 96 The Switch Dance 97 Women’s Traditional 97 Women’s Fancy Shawl 100 102 Social Dances 104 The Hoop Dance 104 Other Pow Wow Songs 105 Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 iii

Pow Wow Representatives 106 The Giveaway 106 The Feast 107 Pow Wow Protocol 108 Ojibwe Musical Styles 110 Current Trends, Drum Groups 116 Thoughts about Dancing 116 Sun Dance Songs 117 Southern Pow Wows and Dance Styles 118 Gourd Dances 119 Southern 120 Women’s Southern Traditional 120 Ladies’ Southern Cloth Dance 121 Ladies’ Traditional Buckskin Dance 121 Tribes 122 The Traditional Ways 126 Relationships with Whites 131 The Cherokee Today 133 Music and Dance of the Cherokee 135 The 139 Hopi Religion, Music, and Ceremonies 142 The Dine () 148 Navajo Religion, Music, and Ceremonies 150 The Nde () 155 Apache Religion, Music, and Ceremonies 156 The Northwest Coast and the Arctic 162 The Peyote Ceremony 163 The 169 The Re-occupation of Wounded Knee 169 Leonard Peltier 171 Sports Logos and Mascots 174 Spearfishing 179 Early Efforts to Reclaim Rights 172 Treaty Background 180 The Voight Decision and “Reserved Rights” 180 Protests and Violence 181 Conservation and Restocking 181 The Real Problem 183 Native American Music Today 187

AFRICAN AMERICAN MUSIC IN THE UNITED STATES 198 Africa - The Mother Country 198 Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 iv

The Impact of African Music 199 African Traditional Music 200 African Instruments 201 African Drumming Styles 207 Vocals and 208 The Griot 209 African Stylistic Characteristics 211 Dance and Movement 212 Music in Africa Today 213 Forced Migration 215 The Effect of Slavery in the U.S. 215 The Great Awakening 219 Minstrelsy 220 Jim Crow 225 Al Jolsen 226 African American Contributions to 227 Field Hollers and Work Songs 231 Spirituals 234 Gospel 236 Four Main Branches of Modern Gospel Music 238 Ragtime 242 Dixieland 249 Buddy Bolden 252 Migration 253 The Dixieland Band 254 Origin of the term “” 255 Louis Armstrong (and Others) 256 The Era 258 Bebop 264 Cool Jazz 268 Third Stream 269 Hard Bop and Funky Jazz 269 Modal Jazz 272 John Coltrane 274 Free Jazz 274 Fusion and Jazz-Rock 277 Smooth Jazz 279 Vocal Jazz Developments 280 Jazz Today and Tomorrow 280 The of the Mississippi Delta 283 The Land Where the Blues Began 284 Singin’ the Blues 286 Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 v

Interaction Between Voice and Instruments 291 Altering Sounds 291 The Church and the Blues 293 Blues 294 Instrumental Characteristics 294 Robert Johnson 296 Urbanizing the Blues 297 Woogie, Crooners, and Blues, Early 301 Doo Wop 312 A New Decade of Change 317 317 Blues after Rock and Roll 329 Charles 330 Memphis Soul 332 336 337 341 1980's R&B 346 The Emergence of the Culture and Rap 350 Termz 352 Early Developments of Hip Hop 353 Hip Hop of the 1990s 367 (/Jazz Hop) 367 Urban Soul 369 East Coast Rap 371 (West Coast) 373 Progressive Rap 376 Sophisticated Hip Hop 379 Instrumental Hip Hop 380 White Rap 382 Some “Early” Hip Hop Groups 384 Hip-hop and the Digital Producer 392 Hip Hop 2000’s 392 Instrumental Hip-hop, 2000’s 395 British Styles of the 2000’s 396 World-hop 397 and 397 Glitch Hop and Music 398 Decline in Sales 398 Innovation and Revitalization 400

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LATIN AMERICAN MUSIC IN THE UNITED STATES 403 Complex and Diverse Cultures 403 404 Argentina 413 The 418 The Andes ` 420 Brazil 430 Native American Origins 431 The African Diaspora in Brazil 431 Macumba 433 Origin of the 435 Carnival 436 The Batería 438 Capoeira 447 Contemporary Samba 450 Bossa Nova 452 The Girl From Ipanema 456 MPB 459 Colombia 461 Musica Tropícal 466 Mexico 469 469 , Tex-Mex, Norteño, Tejano 480 (groups) 481 The Orquesta 486 490 Banda 491 The Latin Tinge 497 Latin American Influence in U.S. Rock Bands 499 The 506 Haiti: The Music of Vodou - The Primal Roots of Jazz 506 Rara 520 The Dominican Republic 522 in the Dominican Republic 528 Trinidad/Tobago 529 Soca, Rapso 535 Steel Drums 538 542 Jíbaro 545 The and 546 Puerto Rican 548 Reggaeton in Puerto Rico 551 Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 vii

Cuba 553 Castro and Cuban Exiles 561 563 Buena Vista Social Club 564 Defining (, Puerto Rico, and ) 539 Salsa Rhythm and General Instrumentation 565 Origin and Development of Salsa 566 573 Jamaica 577 Rastafarianism 578 and Jamaican Calypso 582 Ska 584 Rock Steady 585 587 Bob Marley 590 and 591 Zouk Music from Guadaloupe and Martinique 594 Dedication 595

Cultural Music Perspectives ©

Introduction

Why This Book Exists Boozhoo! Greetings! If you are reading this, you are probably taking the course “Music of the Americas”. Through these readings and the class, I hope you will gain some perspectives regarding the significant contributions of the culture and music of Native Americans, , and Latin Americans in the U.S. Much of the music covered is not studied in university music courses, yet is disctinctly AMERICAN MUSIC!

While a number of books on these topics exist (typically written by ethnomusicologists), most cover only one or part of one genre. The great majority of books on Native American music are written by Anglos from a non- indigenous perspective. In our text, information in the first section comes largely from Native Americans , as I was fortunate to have been given direct teachings that helped me offer information in a simple and respectful way.

With African American music, there are many books on jazz, soul, hip hop, gospel, classical composers, etc., but few cover all of these fields in a concise, easy-to understand methodology. Having performed music in these enables me to present a participant’s view of the music, with the intention of making it easy to understand.

Books on Latin American music usually focus on one Latin American country or regional area. The few books that cover all of Latin America do not necessarily address the relevance of the music to developments in the U.S. Hopefully what is presented here will spark some interest about the music of these vibrant musical cultures.

A Definition of Culture If ’re studying cultural music, it makes sense to analyze what culture is! Given is a “working” definition created from students in past classes:

Culture is a learned, shared, changeable, diverse, and cumulative experience that continues all through our life. Each person's cultural orientation influences what is perceived as reality, both individually and socially. It is passed down from each generation, changing and adapting over time. Culture is neither rigid nor static, and within its boundaries there is generally broad diversity. Some disparate cultures can coexist peacefully while other ethnocultural groups have long-standing conflicts. Culture can define who its members recognize as an ally or as an enemy.

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Our biological, psychological, social, spiritual functions determine our human activities. Our values, norms, attitudes, and structures are established by allied groups of people. Our individual affinity with these allied groups determine how we process what we take in and influence what, when, and how we react to stimuli. In short, culture is often referred to as an entire way of life.

What are some characteristics of culture?

It is a universal trait of all organized groups. It has systemic features. It is learned; passed on from generation to generation. It includes abstract and concrete concepts. It contains values, norms, assumptions, beliefs, attitudes and expectations which are consistent and common to a group. It meets human needs. It adapts to changes. It provides solutions to recurrent problems.

“Who am I?” A lot of us struggle with the complexity of this seemingly simple . One way to look at this “I” is through our cultural self, and another way is through our higher self. Both are beneficial.

Aspects of our lives that typically belong to our cultural self are:

Name Gender, physical features Heritage, citizenship Age Geographical location Family, friends Marital or dating status Health Education Religion, philosophy, political beliefs Job, status, economic condition, possessions Hobbies Membership in organizations Our behavior and attitudes toward people and the above items

These are common labels that we associate with when we think about who we are. The higher self (or true nature) is also part of our identity, but transcends these labels. For more on that and other issues of well-being, I invite you to read my book “Well I’ll Be a Blue-Nosed Gopher!”…Practicing Happiness Right Now! If you are interested in a copy, email me at [email protected]. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 3

With a working definition of culture, it’s easy to realize that much of what we learn is based on interpretation, belief, and attitudes. These attitudes vary considerably, as with this true story from Bolder Landry, my very illustrious anthropology teacher at Savanna High School, Anaheim, California:

On one of his field study trips to a particularly remote Polynesian island, he was welcomed by the Chief and his friendly people. For the privilege of studying there, it was very important to have good relations with the natives. That night, Bolder was invited to a feast and celebration. Afterwards, as per custom, the chief offered him the nicest hut in the village to in. To his surprise though, the chief also offered him his “favorite” wife of the five that he had (unknown to Mr. Landry, another custom of the tribe!). "Oh, no!" Mr. Landry thought, "I'm happily married! What am I going to do?"

To turn down the offer would insult the chief and likely lead to his expulsion from the island, which would mean a lost opportunity for valuable research. So, Mr. Landry decided to go to the hut with the woman, who was all smiles, and explain to her in private that he was married, and that it would not be proper to have an intimate relationship. Upon entering the hut, he began to explain this to the woman, but quickly realized…she did not understand a word of English! The only thing Bolder could do that night was feign tiredness, and when that didn’t work, a severe illness. While that convinced the woman, she then got him the most awful tasting drink for him to consume for his "illness".

All was well the next morning, so Bolder had a productive visit and eventually said goodbye to the friendly villagers. Bolder told the chief that if he ever came to the U.S. he would have a place to stay, and gave him his phone number. Two years later, to Mr. Landry’s surprise, a long distance call came to Bolder's home from the Polynesian chief. "Hello, Mr. Landry! Guess what? I'm coming to the U.S.A. to see civilization! I will be flying to tomorrow! I can't wait to see you and . . . I especially look forward to meeting your wife!"

The next day, as Mr. Landry drove to pick up the chief at the Los Angeles International Airport, he pondered what his explanation to the chief would be about marriage customs in the U.S. He picked up the chief, who was very excited to see the Los Angeles area. They exited off the freeway to see some of Los Angeles, but encountered a police roadblock. An officer approached him and said, “Turn around! It’s extremely dangerous here. There’s looting, fires, and violence right now!”

It was the summer of 1965, and the Watts riots had just begun in Los Angeles.

The cultural differences are obvious. The Polynesian chief’s version of this would likely relate obvious amazement at monogamous life. In addition to marveling at our technological advances the chief undoubtedly noticed our “civilization’s” inability to Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 4

get along without violence, as crime was virtually absent from the chief’s society. The challenges we face with our cultural differences is overcoming an inherent need that one way is “right” and another way is “wrong”.

Differences in cultures can vary from major to subtle nuances that may take years to assimilate. A few obvious behaviors are given:

Eye contact The way we exchange greetings The meaning of applause Student - teacher etiquette Humor The way public acknowledgments are given (praise, rewards) Touching The meaning of certain colors Dating etiquette Gender roles Clothing attire

Not surprisingly, music differs between cultures too. It’s quite beneficial to study culture and music in what may be unfamiliar territory, but even here we can notice how similar we all are too. The desire to be happy, have spiritual values, family, friends, love relationships, a good job, shelter, food, and many other aspects are universal regardless of cultural differences.

Uncertainty Despite advances in technology and knowledge, uncertainty exists everywhere. While non-fiction authors write their postulations as though they are factual, their writings are based on their interpretation of what he or she has learned, myself included. All but the most concrete information we receive is based on someone’s analysis based on their cultural background. All historical teachings are biased to some degree. Listed below are just a few beliefs that have been disputed, and some may be argued still. Perhaps you have a few to add to the list!

Earth is the center of the universe, and all other bodies revolve around us. The earth is flat. What goes up must come down. Columbus discovered America in 1492. There is no concrete evidence of life elsewhere; we are alone in the universe. The sightings at Roswell were simply weather balloons. Ghosts do not exist. All ghost stories are fiction. There is nothing special about the “Bermuda Triangle”. Evolution of humans from any species is a myth. Cloning humans will never occur. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 5

When you die you go either to heaven or hell. Humans will never be able to create life in a scientific laboratory. Marilyn Monroe committed in 1962. The John F. Kennedy assassination was solely the doing of Lee Harvey Oswald. One race/religion/culture is superior to another. The AIDS virus was created by the U.S. government. OJ Simpson, Phil Spector, and George Zimmerman were not guilty of murder. The moon landing was a farce. We never really went there. Princess Diana’s death was accidental. died of a heart attack due to “natural causes”. Global warming is…?

Regardless of which of these you agree with, uncertainties remain endless. When it comes to any media (including reading this book!), it is best to question everything, research thoroughly, and be open to new ideas. Avoid the “I only know what I like and like what I know” attitude that slams the door on anything new EVER being accepted.

Like food, new music requires some initial sampling, then time to acquire a taste for it. How many times have you not liked a song initially, but learned to like it later? With an open mind, let’s begin our study of the music of Native Americans, African Americans, and Latin Americans, and their indelible influence in the U.S.

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Native American Music in the United States

“More Than an Afterthought” In order to understand the music of any culture, one has to have an idea of how people think, live, and act the way they do – and why. In the past, few scholars made a serious study of the Native American culture, and those that did were not raised in the culture, so their interpretations came from a non-indigenous perspective. The only way to really learn about a people is to go directly to them for information, and take the time to be immersed in that culture! This was rarely done in the past. In particular, much information about Native Americans must come from oral tradition, a fundamental thread of Native American society. Considering that Native Americans were the first to permanently populate this country, it is amazing how little most US citizens know about this very diverse group of people.

European settlers became the dominant culture in the hemisphere because of superior weaponry and because Native Americans had no immunities to the new diseases brought over. For over 500 years, education in the U.S. has been based largely on European ideas, excluding any serious study of other cultural practices and views. In the 21st century, this imbalance is slightly less severe, yet we still lack the resolve and willingness to change in order to include Native American studies in today’s mainstream curriculum.

When America was "discovered," there were several civilizations already thriving with very high degrees of organized society. Yet, the prevailing attitude of the new settlers came to be that they were somehow superior, and it became “righteous” to exploit, dominate, and exterminate Native Americans simply because they were “different.” In order to heal the wounds of the past, it is time to turn to the Native American culture for the wisdom it offers.

A Growing and Diverse Ethnic Group Nothing could be more foolish than to believe the old historical notion of Native Americans as a "vanishing race". Despite tremendous population loss through the early part of the twentieth century, recent decades have brought a resurgence of population and a newfound interest in indigenous culture. Yet, it is quite overwhelming to realize that there are over 1,000 tribal nations and over 60 different language families to choose from. It is possible to spend a lifetime studying any one of these cultural groups. At best, we’ll look at some general concepts, and realize that within every tribal nation exist many variants of cultural and musical expression. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 7

Native American Origin “Theories” The time of "arrival" of Native Americans in the western hemisphere is under considerable scrutiny. Non-Native American historians typically wrote about the travels of Asians across the Bering Strait (between Russia and Alaska), when the Strait was frozen over. The assumption has always been that the Asians who crossed there in prehistoric times became the Native Americans we know of today. This is universally contrary to the belief of Native American Nations, whose origin theories consistently claim no migration, and that their origin has always been in North America. Asians may have crossed the Strait when it was solid land some 12,000 years ago, as indicated in many history books. Similarities in appearance between some Native Americans to Asians can be found. There are a few similarities between the Chinese First Dynasty and the Olmecs of Mexico in that both used ideographs, numbering systems, jade, elaborate water control systems, and preferred the idea of large religious centers. In all origin theories from the indigenous people themselves, Native Americans contend they are NOT Asians, and have always been here.

Bones discovered in Southern California in 1999 prove human existence in the U.S. 1,000 years before the Bering Strait crossing of 12,000 years ago, and some scientists speculate that the Bering Strait may have been crossed by early Homo sapiens even 30,000 years ago. A discovery in Chile now places human existence in the Americas even before that - at 33,000 years! Scientific evidence is slow to travel, though. For example, it took several hundred years for the general populace to accept that the world was not flat despite scientific evidence to the contrary, so in this same resistance to change, few dispute the “Bering Strait Origin Theory” despite archeological evidence to the contrary – except Native Americans.

Additionally, a trans-Pacific crossing in prehistoric times was quite possible in times of favorable ocean currents, and it has been accomplished in modern times with materials simulating prehistoric times. The crossing of the Pacific certainly was a difficult feat, but it is now considered likely that a few successful crossings by Asians or Polynesians occurred. If Asians and Polynesians could cross the Pacific, there is also the liklihood that Africans made an Atlantic crossing. Of course, Viking explorers were here long before Columbus (1,000 A.D.), and there was considerable contact between Vikings and Native Americans of the East Coast.

It now appears that Asians and crossed the Bering Strait in both directions not only 12,000 years ago but in several waves going as far back as 37,000 years ago. Vikings, Polynesians, and Africans have gotten to the U.S. as well, so the single Bering Strait crossing theory is losing its sway as more conflicting discoveries are found. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 8

Origins According to Native American Oral Tradition According to long-standing oral tradition, Native Americans have ALWAYS BEEN in the western hemisphere since Homo sapiens have been known to exist. There are striking similarities between tribes regarding their own creation stories. The author has yet to find any oral account supporting the notion of “when we crossed the frozen arctic lands” or “back when we lived in lands far away” or any migration.

Why didn’t scholars go to the highly respected tribal elders of any Indian nation and ask “Would you tell us about the origin of your people?” Past misdeeds, warfare, and genocide made meaningful communication with Native American cultures practically impossible. The predominant belief was that Native Americans were incapable of knowing their own origins! I am unaware of a culture that does not have an origin theory. Why would Native Americans be an exception? While the days of warfare are gone, trivialization, condescending attitudes, or simple neglect remain regarding the Native American culture.

In Anglo society, the value of the written word has always superceded the spoken word in U.S. history. In the Native American world, (and other cultures) oral tradition, is the way history and cultural traditions have always been communicated. Unfortunately the effectiveness and power of oral teachings has been grossly underestimated by cultures that rely on writings. Their view has been – “if it’s not written down, it didn’t happen. If it IS written down, then it must be the truth”.

Native American stories in the oral tradition are called "myths" because they were not written down! Any story coming from Native Americans is branded a “myth” as if some kind of “verification” from a non-native is needed to authenticate it! The assumption has always been that the dominant Anglo society’s written words are the only “truths”. This sad notion remains in scholarly circles too. We not only need more traditional Native American scholars to enlighten us with perspectives from within Native American circles, but non-native scholars need to listen to the respected elders and scholars from within the Native American community for research. When a society has used oral tradition as the basis of cultural and historical preservation, researchers have a duty to investigate those traditions from within the tribal communities.

Mound Builders – The Unknown Civilization The term mound builders has been used to denote the makers of the prominent mounds and massive earthworks found scattered over lands west of the Appalachians. Ancient earthworks were rare and inconspicuous east of the Appalachians and north of the Carolinas, and weren’t discovered until settlers penetrated the area in the late 18th century. Each new discovery sparked fresh Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 9

debate over the age and identity of the builders, which intensified as some wanted to raze the area for fields or building development.

These earthen constructions consisted of picturesque arrangements of mounds, (some quite large) hilltop crests with large circular shapes; and very precise geometric embankments in the shape of circles, squares, and octagons. These extensive landscape modifications were indicative of a distinctly large population base in an otherwise unpopulated area. The considerable age of the mounds was obvious from the growth of large trees found on some of them. The identity of the people who constructed these earthworks remains under debate. Were they constructed by the ancestors of Indians, or by other people?

The earliest documented mounds were constructed in Louisiana about 4000 BC., when groups in the lower Mississippi Valley established settled village life. Although these burial mounds were sometimes large, they were isolated constructions associated with distinct villages. Some were earthworks built in the outline of an animal. Such effigy mounds were particularly common in the upper Great Lakes area from 500 to 1000 AD.

Some truly massive mounds were discovered at the Poverty Point site (Louisiana).

These mound groups revealed that people from distant areas came together to generate social relations among separate peoples. These earthworks were more complicated than the mounded cemeteries of local, self-sufficient villages. At its heyday around 1000 BC., Poverty Point covered about one hundred acres and featured six concentric rings of low embankments of earth.

With the rise of communities based on corn agriculture around 1000 AD, the flat- topped pyramidal mound came to predominate throughout the Southeast. This construction was designed to serve as a platform for residences and shrines for chiefs and their priesthood. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 10

The largest mound in eastern North America – Monks Mound, is one of over a hundred mounds at the two square mile Cahokia site, east of St. Louis, Missouri in Western Illinois. Monks Mound is one hundred feet high with a basal area of about thirteen acres. Occupied between 700 and 1250 AD., the core of the site covered more than two hundred acres and was surrounded by a wooden palisade containing in excess of twenty thousand logs. The city contained more than 100 mounds! Many mounds served as bases for elite residences and public buildings, which were erected on their summits. Cahokia contained plazas, residential districts, a large circular wooden-post monument, and elite burials containing burial goods drawn from the Gulf of Mexico, the Rockies, the southern Appalachians, and the Great Lakes. It was unquestionably the largest prehistoric urban center north of Mexico.

Cahokia Mounds State Historic Park, courtesy of State of Illinois, NPS photo1

Another major archaeological site in Western Alabama is known as Moundville, a large archaeological site in western Alabama that served as the capital of a large prehistoric chiefdom. Located on the Black Warrior River, south of modern-day Tuscaloosa, the site covers three hundred acres centered on a one-hundred-acre plaza surrounded by twenty paired mounds. This core area originally was surrounded by a wooden palisade.

After 1300 AD., mound construction declined throughout the Southeast. By the sixteenth century mounds that were still in use were occupied, but with little attempt to add to or alter them. Native Americans living in the vicinity of the mounds claim no responsibility for constructing them. So, the Mound Builder label

1 http://www.galwest.com/artifacts/north_america/Cahokia-TownsendMural.jpg

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is associated mostly with ancient Native American civilization, and yet today, few know that an advanced Native American civilization existed in the US over one thousand years ago.

Most travelers, missionaries, and settlers were quick to conclude that these constructions were the legacy of a race of people unrelated to the region's current Native American inhabitants. The prevalent attitude was that Native Americans were incapable of devoting the effort required in the mounds' construction and would not have had the engineering knowledge to plan and execute their creation. So entrenched were early Americans in their negative perception of Native American abilities that they paid little attention to any testimony to the contrary.

Who built the mounds? One theory was that they were the descendants of the lost tribes of Israel; another theory maintained that they were peoples from the south, identified with one of the Mexican groups. There are a growing number of adherents to a third view—that the earthworks were made by the ancestors of present-day Indians.

Cultural Differences and the “Noble Savage” Indian nations had attained a high degree of culture and civilization long before Vikings and other Europeans set foot upon the shores of the Americas. One area where the early Europeans surpassed the Indians was in methods of destruction. They considered the nature of the Indians to be “savage” because they did not have similar weapons, and because their lifestyle contained some differences from the whites. Despite the many social, political, and spiritual achievements by Native Americans, written narratives by the white settlers depicted Native Americans as “wild savages” or “devil worshippers.” After all, they were scantily clad, and liked to dance to “wild drums” and “screech like a banshee” as terrified white settlers would report. Positive accounts detail beautiful physical features, pleasant personalities, and virtue. Some Europeans also decided to live with Native Americans and adopted their way of life.

Native Americans at first welcomed the white settlers, and a peaceful co-existence was envisioned; yet, as hostilities increased, Native Americans began to view whites as "savage". The word for whites translates to mean "barbarians," and the Sioux word for whites translates to mean "monsters". Many other tribes used comparable names, yet; curiously, the term "paleface" does not exist anywhere in authentic writings, which may indicate that the term was a white man's invention to cover up the less complimentary terms ordinarily used.2 Although the term

2 Reginald and Gladys Laubin. Indian Dances of North America: Their Importance to Indian Life, Norman, OK, The University of Oklahoma Press, 39. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 12

"whites" are about those of European origin, there were fair-skinned Native Americans with light brown or reddish hair with blue or gray eyes as early as when the first English settlers arrived, leaving one to deduce that Welsh or Norse had mingled with Native Americans in earlier times.

A term often found in writings is the idea of Native Americans as the "noble savage". In Webster's Dictionary, the word "savage" is described as "not domesticated or under human control". Also the words "primitive" and "crude" are still applied to Native Americans today, and even some non-traditional Native Americans today hold such a view. (A non-traditional Native American is one who has not been taught the traditional ways of his or her people, or tribe.) The term "noble savage" implied that although Native Americans were noble people possessing many virtues, they were still "primitive." What was it that made these people "savage"?

Native Americans were considered barbaric because they did not believe in ownership of private property, but preferred the common use of land. Native Americans were deemed uncivilized because they had no books, but preferred an oral tradition. An elder once said to one of our student groups about to receive a teaching about the Sweat Ceremonies, "We have great memories and lousy libraries, while the whites have great libraries and lousy memories." Whites also believed Native Americans were "lawless" because they had no police, no written laws, no absolute monarchies, and no courts of law, which grossly overlooked the complexity of a society that had practically no crime to speak of, and if someone did become troublesome, there was a highly organized system of dealing with the trouble.

Another prevailing attitude from whites was that the lack of “printed currency” (money) was of savagery. Since Native Americans would ask only for what they needed in trade, one must wonder what they thought when they witnessed such acts as the hoarding of the "yellow metal" (gold) which had little value in the Native American world. The nearly continuous dancing of some tribes who greeted the whites was also considered to be "primitive" or "savage" as was the preferred way of , which was not like the Europeans.

There was never enough of a two-way communication between the European and Native American cultures. It seemed that too many whites deemed themselves “more advanced” and never bothered to think that they might learn something (or many things) from Native Americans. Native Americans were looked upon as childlike, inferior, and "in need of religion". This came about because not enough whites ever mingled with the native peoples long enough to discover that and spirituality was incorporated into nearly every daily activity, and really was not that “different” from the whites in concept, only in the methods Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 13

of practice. To learn and understand cultural traditions takes time. One need not “agree” with all practices of a culture, but understanding and respect for all peoples of the world is a must for the survival of humanity.

Early Colonization to Wounded Knee To best understand why Native American music is the way it is, we need to know some history. In the past, there has been a tendency to emphasize war conflicts and cultural differences more than what could be learned from Native American culture. There were military conflicts between the advancing, expansionist settlers and the retreating Native Americans. In any war, atrocities are committed on both sides. Death and bloodshed abound which also includes women, children, animals, and plants! There is long-term suffering, anger, and grief. Given is a capsule view of the history of post-Columbian landmarks3, often referred to by Native Americans as "the trail of broken treaties".

In 1493, after "discovering" the island of San Salvador in the Caribbean, Christopher Columbus reports back to Spain and states:

So tractable, so peaceable, are these people that I swear to your Majesties there is not a better nation. They love their neighbors as themselves, and their discourse is ever sweet and gentle, and accompanied with a smile; and though it is true that they are naked, their manners are decorous and praiseworthy.4

The name Indian, believed to be a result of Columbus giving the indigenous people this name after believing he was in India when he was in the Caribbean, has been challenged by those who report that the Spanish name Indios (Indians) came from the literal translation meaning "of God," or children of God. Despite this praise, Columbus and the Europeans who followed him there enslaved and murdered its inhabitants, destroyed the island's vegetation, and then abandoned it. This is only one reason why many Native Americans do not “celebrate” Columbus Day.

In the 1600’s, some Europeans and their descendants came to believe that they were ordained by destiny to rule all of America, so the concept of “manifest destiny” was formed. The belief spread that whites were the dominant race and therefore “responsible” for the Indians - along with their lands, their forests, and their mineral wealth.5 Throughout the “conquest," there existed "the prevalent

3 "Indian and White Man 1768-1964". Liner Notes from Songs of Earth, Water, Fire, and Sky, Phonodisc, Library of Congress, 1976. 4 Dee Brown. Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee: An Indian History of the American West, New York, Henry Holt and Company, 1. 5 Brown, 8. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 14

idea that the Indian's only salvation lay in accepting the white man's ways, at the sacrifice of his own."6

Scalping Old Western movies or stories about past skirmishes with "wild" Indians from the white viewpoint (the only viewpoint ever written down) describe the practice of scalping, which was claimed to have originated with Indians. Stereotypical images abound of brave white settlers helplessly defending themselves against aggressive, scalp-hunting Indians! They did cut off heads, didn't they?

Scalping had been known in as far back as ancient Greece. The practice in the American colonies of paying bounties for native scalps - similar to the English practice in Ireland of paying bounties for heads - is credited to Governor Keift of New Netherlands. By attaching a profit motive to the practice of scalping, Europeans were encouraged to step up the slaughter of native people to ease the takeover of more territory. By 1703 the Massachusetts Bay Colony was offering $60 for each Native scalp.7

The Spanish, French, Dutch, and English made the custom popular by offering a bounty for scalps of their respective enemies. These "bounties" were piled next to trees for "collection," and the piles of bloodied corpses and scalps acquired the nickname "redskins" (one of two origins of this term). Bounty collectors would go around and ask “How many redskins do you have?” Is it any wonder why some eastern tribes have strong objections to the use of this name for a sports team?

Consider this chilling proclamation found on parchment from 1755. I have replaced the old English “f” with the letter “s” for ease of reading:

6 Laubin, 49. 7 Rethinking Schools Special Edition, 22. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 15

By His Excellency WILLIAM SHIRLEY, Esq; Captain-General and Governor in Chief, in and over His Majesty’s Province of the Massachusetts-Bay, in New-England, and Vice-Admiral of the same, and Major-General in His Majesty’s Army A PROCLAMATION Whereas the Indians of Norridgewock, Arresaguntacook, Weweenock and St. John’s Tribes, and the Indians of the other Tribes inhabiting in the Eastern and Northern Parts of His Majesty’s Territories of New-England, the Penobscot Tribe only excepted, have, contrary to their solemn Submission unto His Majesty long since made and frequently renewed, been guilty of the most perfidious, barbarous and inhuman Murders of divers of his Majesty’s English Subjects; and have abstained from all Commerce and Correspondence with His Majesty’s said Subjects for many Months past; and the said Indians have fully discovered an inimical, traitorous and rebellious Intention and Disposition;

I have therefore thought fit to issue this proclamation, and to declare the Indians of the Norridgewock, Arresaguntacook, Weweenock and St. John’s tribes, and the Indians of the other tribes now of late inhabiting in the eastern and northern parts of his Majesty’s territories of New- England, and in alliance and confederacy with the above-recited tribes, the Penobscots only excepted, to be enemies, rebels and traitors to his Most Sacred Majesty: And I do hereby require his Majesty’s ?????? (unreadable) of this province to embrace all opportunities of pursuing, captivating, killing, and destroying all and any of the aforesaid Indians, the Penobscots excepted.

And whereas the general Court of this Province have voted, That a Bounty of Encouragement be granted and allowed to be paid out of the Publick Treasury to the marching Army that shall be employed for the Defence of the Eastern and Western Frontiers from the Twenty-fifth of this Month of June until the Twenty-fifth of November next;

I have thought fit to publish the same; and I do hereby promise, that there shall be paid out of the province Treasury to all and any of the said forces, over and above their bounty upon enlistment, their wages and sustenance, the premiums or bounties following,

For every Male Indian Prisoner above the Age of Twelve Years, that shall be taken and brought to Boston, Fifty Pounds.

For every Male Indian Scalp, brought in as Evidence of their being killed, Forty Pounds.

For every Female Indian Prisoner, taken and brought in as aforesaid, and for every Male Indian Prisoner under the Age of Twelve Years, taken and brought in as aforesaid, Twenty-five Pounds.

For every Scalp of such Female Indian or Male Indian under Twelve Years of Age, brought as Evidence of their being killed, as aforesaid, Twenty Pounds.

GIVEN under my Hand at Boston, in the Province aforesaid, this Twelfth Day June, 1755, and in the Twenty-eighth Year of the Reign of our Sovereign Lord GEORGE the Second, by the Grace of GOD, of Great-Britain, , and Ireland, KING, Defender of the Faith, &c.

By His Excellency’s Command, J. Willard, Secr’y W. SHIRLEY GOD Save the KING.

BOSTON, Printed by John Draper, Printer to His the Honourable His Majesty’s Council, 1755

Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 16

Traditional Warfare Style The traditional style of warfare of Native Americans differed considerably than that of the whites. Typically, a disagreement between tribes that could not be settled peacefully was decided through a series of skirmishes designed to prove bravery, honor, and to intimidate the enemy. Although killing an enemy in a one-on- one situation would occur, a large number of casualties in these skirmishes was not the goal, and was practically unheard of. Women and children were never killed, unless by accident. Although casualties could occur in battle, the number ranged from zero to up to a dozen. It was far better to be killed in battle than to have one’s hair (scalp) taken! The goal was to take as much hair as possible without killing the enemy. This was considered to be an act of bravery for the warrior and humiliating for the enemy. Killing someone in battle had no value compared to scalps of hair. The practice of taking the hair from the enemy was called counting coup.

The myth of the "savage" Indian being more warlike than the white settler has even been aided by Indians themselves. When touring in the early 20th century, photographers in every country tried to get Indians to pose for pictures with their "fiercest expression," with a knife in their teeth or a tomahawk in their hands. Amused, they would oblige, not realizing the stereotypical myth they were perpetuating.8

1763 – Cherokee Policies Originally, the Cherokee felt the British would probably win the Revolutionary War, so they signed a treaty of friendship with the British. Oops. Things went badly for the Cherokee after the British lost the revolution!

1787 – Northwest Ordinance The Northwest Ordinance guaranteed lands to Native Americans, but white settlers ignored it.

1795 – Treaty of Greenville The Treaty of Greenville forced Native Americans to cede , Indiana, and other parts of the "Old Northwest."

1814 – Creek “Treaty” Friendly Creek Indians, after helping General Andrew Jackson to overcome Upper Creek Indians at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend, were forced to sign a treaty ceding nearly 2/3rds of their territory.

8 Laubin, 74. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 17

1830 – Bill The Indian Removal Bill was pushed through Congress by President Andrew Jackson, known to the Native Americans as “Sharp Knife”. Jackson stated "I suggest the propriety of setting apart an ample district west of the Mississippi…to be guaranteed to the Indian tribes, as long as they shall occupy it."9

1832 – Massacre at Bad Axe Unable to live in due to tribal conflicts after being forced to leave Illinois, Sauk and Fox Indians attempted to return and were forced to flee to Wisconsin, where men, women, and children were massacred by troops as they tried to flee back across the Mississippi River.

1835-1842 – Never Signed a Treaty After a bloody conflict, the Indians were forced west of reservations they had settled in 1819. was "captured" under a flag of truce and imprisoned, where he later died. The Seminoles may be the only surviving tribe never to have signed a treaty.

Trail of Tears In the winter of 1838-1839, despite a Supreme Court decision upholding Cherokee rights to lands east of the Mississippi (1831) President Jackson ordered the army to remove them west (by foot!) to Oklahoma Territory. The death and hardships endured on this trek became known as the .

1849-59 California Gold Rush During the California Gold Rush, 70,000 Indians died from warfare or as a result of lack of immunity to diseases brought by the settlers.

1862 – Deliberate Starvation of Sioux As Indian war losses forced more onto reservations, several thousand Santees (Sioux) assembled at the Upper Agency on Yellow Medicine River to collect their annuities pledged by the treaties, in order to get food. However, the money did not arrive and the food, stacked in warehouses was refused until the money arrived. One month later, the money had not arrived and the Indians were starving. When asked repeatedly to make an arrangement, Andrew Myrick, a trader, replied, "So far as I am concerned, if they are hungry let them eat grass or their own dung."10

9 Brown, 5. 10 Brown, 40. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 18

1864 – The Sand Creek Massacre In October, leaders Black Kettle and White Antelope concluded an armistice with whites on the Missouri River and settled at Sand Creek, Colorado. One favorite way to destroy morale of the Indians was to kill their chiefs by luring them into a "meeting". Lean Bear, a Cheyenne chief, was killed in this manner at a distance of 20 feet while holding a treaty. When retaliation occurred, Colonel John M. Chivington, a former Methodist preacher, ordered his men to "kill whenever and wherever found,"11 and to "Kill all the Indians you come across."12 Colonel Chivington speaks again:

Damn any man who sympathizes with Indians! I have come to kill Indians, and believe it is right and honorable to use any means under God's heaven to kill Indians.13

Chivington advocated scalping of all Indians, including infants. Indians retaliated with similar mutilations, imitating their enemies. Indians without weapons were massacred at Sand Creek when told to gather around the white truce flag. Once gathered, they were fired upon. One hundred and five Indian women and children were slaughtered, mutilated and exhibited in public display. Twenty-eight Indian males were killed. This created an outrage from many white people, especially in the east. Most of the time, whites had no idea that such genocide was going on.

1867 – and go to Oklahoma Beaten by Texas and U.S. troops, Comanche and Kiowa warriors agreed to settle in Oklahoma, also known as the "."

1868 – “Scorched Earth” Policies Create a Navajo Wasteland The Navajo were sent to a wasteland reservation in northeastern . To conquer the , the "scorched earth" policy of destroying all crops and livestock was adopted. To stimulate the zeal of his troops, General James Carleton offered $20 for every horse or mule, and one dollar for sheep. To prove their soldierly abilities, they began cutting off the knot of hair fastened by a red string that the Navajos wore on their heads. The Navajos could not believe that western hero Kit Carson condoned scalping, introduced into America by the Europeans.

Many Navajos died at the Bosque Redondo Reservation set aside for them. The reservation superintendent, A.B. Norton stated:

11 Brown, 73. 12 Brown, 83. 13 Brown, 86,87. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 19

The sooner it is abandoned and the Indians removed the better. . . Would any sensible man select a spot for a reservation for 8,000 Indians where the water is scarcely bearable, where the soil is poor and cold, and where the mesquite roots 12 miles distant are the only wood for the Indians to use?14

1868 - Fort Laramie Treaty The Fort Laramie Treaty was signed, giving the Sioux nations a large area, including the Black Hills of .

1870 – Destruction of Cheyenne During this decade, the Cheyenne population was nearly wiped out on their reservations due to lack of food, water, and deadly diseases.

The San Carlos Reservation, and the 1871 Camp Grant Massacre The following was written by an Army Officer stationed in the Apache San Carlos Reservation:

A gravelly flat, rose some thirty feet or so above the river bottoms and was dotted here and there by the drab adobe buildings of the agency. Scrawny, dejected lines of scattered cottonwoods, shrunken, almost leafless, marked the course of the streams. Rain was so infrequent that it took on the semblance of a phenomenon when it came at all. Almost continuously dry, hot, dust and gravel laden winds swept the plain, denuding it of every vestige of vegetation. In summer a temperature of 110° in the shade was cool weather. At all other times of the year flies, gnats, unnamable bugs . . . swarmed in the millions.15

The Camp Grant Massacre occurred on the San Carlos reservation when 144 , nearly all women and children, were murdered in a surprise attack by an angry band of Mexican ranchers, Papago and Tohono O'oodham Indians (enemy of the Apache) and a few whites. Coming from the largely Mexican town of Tuscon 70 miles to the south, they opposed the fact that the Apaches were allowed a place to stay and given food in exchange for giving up their weapons. It was revenge on innocent Apaches in exchange for the raids still occurring around Tuscon.

Indian Haters General Custer, in a truce meeting, took Kiowa chiefs Satanta and Lone Wolf hostage, and threatened to kill them unless a "treaty" was signed. Yellow Wolf of the Nez Percé tribe stated:

14 Brown, 33. 15 Brown, 393. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 20

The whites told only one side. Told it to please themselves. Told much that is not true. Only his own best deeds and only the worst deeds of the Indians have the white man told.16

Generals Winfield Scott Hancock and George Armstrong Custer adopted the scorched earth policy against the Sioux. “Black Whiskers” John B. Sanborn told the secretary of the Interior:

The operations of General Hancock have been so disastrous to the public interests, and at the same time seem to me to be so inhuman, that I deem it proper to communicate my views to you on the subject . . . For a mighty nation like us to be carrying on a war with a few straggling nomads, under such circumstances, is a spectacle most humiliating, an injustice unparalleled, a national crime most revolting, that must, sooner or later, bring down upon us or our posterity the judgment of heaven."17

General William Sherman stated:

My opinion is, if fifty Indians are allowed to remain between the Arkansas and the Platte we will have to guard every stage station, every train, and all railroad working parties. . . Rather get them out as soon as possible, and it makes little difference whether they be coaxed out by Indian commissioners or killed.18

General Philip Sheridan appears to be the most notorious Indian hater in history. To Sheridan, all Indians were "savages". Sheridan ordered Custer to "go into the winter retreat of the Cheyenne tribe, destroy their villages and ponies, kill or hang all warriors, and bring back all women and children." The cavalrymen found it much more efficient and safe to kill indiscriminately, therefore, most of the women and children were killed also. It was also Sheridan who uttered the words: "The only good Indians I ever saw were dead."19

Sherman ordered to Sheridan to continue killing hostile Indians and their ponies, but at the same time advised that he "establish the friendly Indians in camps where they could be fed and exposed to the white man's civilized culture"20

16 Brown, 316. 17 Brown, 157. 18 Brown, 157-8. 19 Brown, 168-170. 20 Brown, 170. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 21

1872-74 – Slaughter of the Buffalo By the summer of 1874, widespread starvation of the Commanches, , Cheyennes, and Arapahos occurred due to the purposeful slaughter of the buffalo for the sole purpose of killing Indians. Only an occasional buffalo hide was saved. Buffalo had so many uses, and each animal was typically used in its entirety for many purposes, so the slaughter of the buffalo was quite devastating to Native Americans of the . Once over 50 million in number, bison were reduced to less than one hundred animals.

A pile of Buffalo Skulls – 1870’s21

If I could learn that every buffalo in the northern herd were killed I would be glad. The destruction of this herd would do more to keep the Indians quiet than anything else that could happen." -General Phil Sheridan, 1881-22

21 http://www.oneofmanyfeathers.com/spirit_of_a_nation.html 22 Ibid. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 22

1874 – Abuse of Apache At a meeting in Apache country, Cochise and his family were arrested and held hostage. After Cochise got away in a daring escape, three members of his family were hanged. Apache children who were not killed were often given to the Christianized Papagos, and sold as slaves in Mexico.

1872-76 – Denial of Religious Rights President Grant's "Peace Policy" turned Indian affairs over to church leaders, who denied them the right to practice their tribal religions.

1876 – Treaty Violations, Little Big Horn, Indian Killing Frenzy General Crook's army was sent to force Indians to reservations after gold was discovered in the South Dakota Black Hills even though the land had been given to them in the Treaty of 1868. As soon as it was determined the Sioux would not sell the Black Hills for any amount of money, military operations began. In June, Crazy Horse defeated General Crook at Rosebud Creek in south-central . That month, General George Custer and his 225 men were killed by Sioux and Northern Cheyenne at the Battle of Little Bighorn. After that, Indian killing became a frenzy in the plains, and any Indian would be subject to reprisals for the battle of the Little Big Horn, regardless of tribe, whether living on a reservation or not, or whether peaceful relations had been in existence.

1878 – Northwest Indian Removal The last free northwestern Indians were removed to Washington State's Colville reservation.

1881 – Imprisonment of Geronimo Geronimo (Apache chief) surrendered and was imprisoned in Florida, ending Indian resistance in the southwest. It took 5,000 soldiers, several thousand civilian militia, and 500 Apache scouts to capture Geronimo's army, who was also pursued by several thousand Mexican soldiers. Geronimo had given up willingly to two scouts and was never captured in battle. His "army" consisted of 24 Apache warriors.23

1882 – Sign This Treaty or Else! Rev. Samuel D. Hinman, a missionary to the Sioux, believed what the Indians needed was "less land and more Christianity." Hinman promised that the 'Great Father' would give the Indians 25,000 cows and 1,000 bulls, but to get them, some papers were to be signed. As none of the Sioux chiefs could read, 14,000 square miles of

23 Brown, 411. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 23

land were signed away. Hinman obtained signatures of boys as young as 7 in some locations. He told others if they did not sign, all rations would be cut off.24

1887 – Dawes General Allotment Act The Dawes General Allotment Act provided for replacement of tribal reservations with individual ownership of land, intended to encourage farming, forec assimilation into white society, and to redistribute Indian land to whites.

1889 – Oklahoma Indian Territory Released to Whites What used to be Indian Territory in Oklahoma was released on this day to white settlers by President Benjamin Harrison.

The In the 1870's, a Paiute named Ta´vibo in Nevada, and Smohalla, of a small tribe of Columbia River Indians in Washington, known as the Wa´napum, both preached the complete abandonment of the white ways, and won over many converts. Other western tribes, including the Apaches, took up similar beliefs. The prevalent idea was that the white ways were the downfall of Indian civilization. The old days would soon return, and that the whites would disappear through some supernatural event. Wo´voka, son of Ta´vibo, who had associated all of his life with whites, began preaching a doctrine similar to that of his father's, and with a knowledge of sleight-of-hand, hypnotism, and other tricks, he was able to convince many that he could "die" and come back to life. He even correlated one of his "deaths" with a total eclipse of the sun he had read about in an almanac on January 1, 1889. Since none of the other Indians knew about the eclipse, he was proclaimed by some to be the next Indian Messiah.

Wovoka's teachings spread like wildfire among the western tribes, and it soon took hold with the Sioux, who were worse off than most tribes after the decimation of the buffalo. Cooped up on reservations, virtually prisoners of war, their treaties violated, their promised rations cut and long-delayed in delivery, the entire tribe was starving, and suffering and despondent. The proud Sioux, never really whipped in battle, defeated only because their food supply was destroyed, were ready for anything as a way out.

As Wovoka proclaimed himself the Indian Christ (he had a Christian background as well), he urged Native Americans to dance for the return of the old Indian ways, and for the banishment of the whites through their dancing and prayer. The Ghost Dance rose to a feverish pitch from 1889-1890. Dances, fasting, and sweats lasted for days. Ghost Dance shirts and dance staffs were made. The Ghost Dance did

24 Brown, 421-2. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 24

not incorporate drums or rattles due to fear of being killed for stirring up an “Indian uprising.”, nor did it include bells, which had come from the white man.25 , known for his singing abilities, allowed the dance to occur, but was somewhat skeptical of it. Descriptions of the dance itself are few and only contain the white perspective, which was limited to words like “shrieking and wailing” – indicative of the lack of understanding of how Native American music works. Given are short excerpts of translated text of two Ghost Dance sequences:

Sioux sequence:

MY GREAT GIFTS ARE LIFE AND PEACE It is I who make these sacred things, Says the father, says the father. It is I who make the sacred shirt, Says the father, Says the father. It is I who made the pipe. Says the father, says the father,

THE POWER OF THE FATHER IS AWESOME You see what I can do - Ye'yeye'! You see what I can do - Ye'yeye' ! You see them, you see them, Ha'eye'ya heyeye! Ha'eye'ya he'yeye!

In Faith and in Wind

Kiowa sequence

THE WAY IT WILL HAPPEN; PRAY TO SPEED THE DAY The father will descend, The father will descend. The earth will tremble, The earth will tremble. Everybody will arise, Everybody will arise. Stretch out your hands. Stretch out your hands.

IT WILL BE THE WORK OF THE FATHER. NOT MAN The spirit army is approaching, The spirit army is approaching. The whole world is moving onward, The whole world is moving onward,

25 Laubin, 62. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 25

See! Everybody is standing watching, See! Everybody is standing watching. Let us all pray, Let us all pray26

The Ghost Dance at Pine Ridge Agency, drawn by Frederic Remington from Harper's Weekly, December 6, 1890, p. 960-961.27

During these times, relations were at an all-time low.

The Great Father sent me word that whatever he had against me in the past had been forgiven and thrown aside, and he would have nothing against me in the future, and I accepted his promises and came in; and he told me not to step aside from the white man's path, and I told him I would not, and I am doing my best to travel in that path. I feel that my country has gotten a bad name, and I want it to have a good name; it used to have a good name; and I sit sometimes and wonder who it is that has given it a bad name. -Sitting Bull-

Senator John Logan to Sitting Bull:

I want to say further that you are not a great chief of this country; that you have no following, no power, no control, and no right to any control. You are on an merely at the sufferance of the government. You are fed by the government, clothed by the government, your children are educated by the government, and all you have and are today is because of the government. If it were

26 http://msnbc.com/onair/msnbc/TimeAndAgain/archive/wknee/ghostsongs.asp?cpl=l&cp1=1 27 http://www.authentichistory.com/diversity/native/plainstimeline/1890_Ghost_Dance-Remington.html Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 26

not for the government you would be freezing and starving today in the mountains. . . The government feeds and clothes and educates your children now, and desires to teach you to become farmers, and to civilize you, and make you as white men.28

When the reservation agency ordered the dancing stopped, Sitting Bull refused, saying his people had the right to dance if they wanted to. Sitting Bull was arrested and killed by Native Americans who worked for the agency after orders were given to take him dead or alive.

The Wounded Knee Massacre

After the murder of Sitting Bull, agencies became increasingly alarmed at the Ghost Dance going on at Pine Ridge, South Dakota. Chief Big Foot and his followers, devastated by the news of Sitting Bull’s murder, attempted to join the Ghost Dances in the Bad Lands, but on the way they were captured and forced to a camp on Wounded Knee Creek near Pine Ridge.

On December 29, 1890, after a search for guns turned up only 40 practically useless guns with Big Foot's soldiers, the Native Americans began a Ghost Dance, but somehow a gun went off and set off a "battle" with soldiers, many of who were from the 7th Cavalry of Custer. They had been on a binge of drinking the night before and were eager to avenge the Battle of the Little Big Horn, so they massacred women and children along with men holding a white flag of truce.

"Later the army tried to explain the slaughter of women, children, and other noncombatants by saying that it was impossible to tell women from men in such a melee, and that the women were armed and fighting with their menfolk. This just does not bear out the facts. . . Women and children were found dead, shot in the

28 Both Quotes are from Brown, 425. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 27

back, as far as two miles from the actual of battle, showing that they had been pursued by the cavalrymen as they tried to escape. Altogether more than three hundred Indians - men, women, and children, mostly unarmed - were killed."29

This was the last military engagement of the "Indian Wars." Medals were later given to some members of the army for their "heroics". Some survivors from the horrors of the Wounded Knee Massacre of 1890 were taken to an Episcopal Mission nearby. The church was still decorated in Christmas greenery, and above the pulpit was the banner PEACE ON EARTH, GOOD WILL TO MEN.30 Eyewitness accounts from the survivors of the massacre have been passed down from generation to generation. After the massacre at Wounded Knee, the Ghost Dance quickly died out among the Sioux; however, it died out more slowly among other tribes such as the Paiutes, Cheyennes, Arapahos, , Caddoes, Wichita, Pawnees, Otos, and Kiowas. The Ghost Dance among the other tribes was less feverish, and tended to emphasize hope for a better time in the future.

The Wounded Knee Massacre Memorial31

29 Laubin, 66. 30 Brown, 443. 31 http://www.panoramio.com/photo/6554470

Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 28

The Dark Ages after 1890 After 1890, Native Americans remained incarcerated on reservations, usually remote areas considered unlivable by whites. Anti-Native American sentiment remained very high, especially right after the end of the "Indian Wars", so the reservations, often more like concentration camps, mirrored the suffering and ignorance of the “dark ages”.

Indian Blood Policy, Cultural Genocide In the early part of this period, if one was discovered to have Indian blood, they could be forced to live on a reservation, even if the percentage was as low as 1/16th. With the poverty and brutality inflicted on Native Amricans, it is little wonder that mixed bloods would hide, disguise and attempt to forget their heritage (as with my own family). For these reasons it can be quite difficult to trace one’s mixed heritage today.

The goal of the U.S. government during this period was to completely snuff out anything resembling Native American culture. In addition to a complete cultural disrespect fed by the fuels of war, the continuance of the old General Sherman’s attitude of it being more economically feasible to wipe out a people than to save them was all too common in the late 19th century. These policies, as you would expect, are almost completely left out of U.S. history books. While the extermination policy was considered too extreme even by “Indian haters”, the survivors faced incarceration resembling federal prison. Several generations of Native Americans imprisoned on the reservations were denied the right to speak or write their native languages, to use traditional teachings, marriage and mourning customs, Indian medicine, traditional dress, music, dancing, hair styles, and even the right for parents to raise their own children.

Indian “Offenses” The following is from Article No. 4 of the Regulations of the Indian Office, effective April 1, 1904, regarding Courts of Indian offenses:

The "sun dance," and all other similar dances and so-called religious ceremonies, shall be considered "Indian offenses," and any Indian found guilty of being a participant in any one or more of these "offenses" shall . . . be punished by withholding from him his rations . . . or by incarceration in the agency prison . . . 32

Most of the above items had been suppressed since the 1880's, when the U.S. government considered all Native American dancing to be "war dancing". Most of these cultural abuses were not repealed until 1934.

32 Laubin , 81. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 29

During this period, to be sure, Indians were occasionally granted permission to dance for fairs, rodeos, and , on white man's holidays, such as Fourth of July - Independence Day! Indians over forty years of age, that is, were given such permission. They were considered hopeless; it was already too late to civilize them. Young people were never granted permission to dance.33

Policies at reservation boarding schools during this time period continued the practice separating children from parents, and of beating the "Indian" out of children. Beatings were given for such offenses as speaking native languages, growing hair too long, or any traditional Native American practices. Oaths had to be taken by children to never participate in any dances or ceremonies before they were allowed to graduate.34 This is why many Native Americans today are handicapped by a personal lack of knowledge of the former lives and customs of their own people, not to mention having to overcome a deeply rooted anger and suspicion about the dominant society in the U.S.

1912 – Jim Thorpe Jim Thorpe (Bright Path) won two gold medals in the Olympics. These medals were taken away from him by a loophole when he unknowingly violated amateur status. However, after further investigation, he was "rewarded" these medals posthumously.

1918 – The 49’er Dance Of the 50 Native Americans who fought for the U.S. in World War I, 49 returned. Today, the 49'er dance is still done to honor those veterans who returned, the one who died, and veterans in general.

1924 – Citizenship Granted to Native Americans As a token of appreciation for Native American contributions in the armed forces in World War I, The Snyder Act granted all Native Americans U.S. citizenship. (How ironic!).

1934 – Indian Reorganization Act The Indian Reorganization Act promoted tribal self-government, extended financial credit to tribes, gave them religious freedom, and encouraged revival of Indian culture. It marked a significant improvement in federal treatment of Native Americans. It would later be canceled during the Eisenhower administration and reinstated in the Kennedy Administration.

33 Laubin, 81. 34 Laubin, 81. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 30

1946 – Indian Claims Commission The Indian Claims Commission was created to reimburse Indians for lands fraudulently taken from them by whites.

Attempts to Eliminate the Reservation System (1953) In 1953, President Eisenhower and Congress passed laws canceling the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, turning Indian affairs over to the states. This strategy was designed to force dissolution of tribal organizations and break-up their financial assets. The hope was that ending the reservation system would force unemployed Native Americans on the reservations to relocate to cities to get jobs, and to continue to dilute the indigenous culture by "encouraging" (coercing) Native Americans to move to urban areas for assimilation into the culture of the dominant society. This action did create a migration of Native Americans to urban areas, but the government underestimated the power of the family unit in Native American society. Many stayed on the reservations to remain with their families despite the third world poverty that existed. Indians who relocated found themselves subject to the same conditions of unemployment and poverty as other minority groups did in the 1950’s.

1961 – Reinstating the Reorganization Act The Kennedy Administration reinstated the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 to aid the rampant poverty of tribal nations, negating the government’s original plan to destroy the reservation communities.

1964 – Anti-Poverty Measures The Office of Economic Opportunity, after a Capital Conference on Indian Poverty, provided funds for Indians to administer anti-poverty measures on reservations.

Summing up the Genocide Here is a horrific statistic regarding the tragedy of the past genocide the U.S. has suffered. Remember this number:

50,000,000 Yes, 50 million – the approximate number of Native American lives lost from warfare and disease since the arrival of Colombus.

Historians may argue forever about the accuracy of this rounded-out number. What is not arguable is that the loss of life was staggering; numbing. This total loss of life created considerable loss of knowledge of tribal history. In some cases, entire tribes were erased from history forever. Cultural loss affects music. This Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 31

difficult history lesson will help us understand why Native American music is the way it is.

History has taught us repeatedly that any culture attempting to destroy or suppress another culture will fail. Noone will tolerate subjugation on a massive scale for long. Anyone I know would fight for the right to their way of life down to the very last man, woman, and child. That was certainly the case with our nation’s past.

Education for Native Americans Traditional education for Native Americans has improved some; there are over 50 colleges that emphasize traditional ways into mainstream curriculum. However, attempts by the U.S. government to wipe out Native American culture created a huge gap for thousands of Native Americans who were denied their past traditional practices. The majority of Native American full-blood or mixed-bloods are not knowledgeable about their tribal heritage, but a substantial number of Native Americans have retained or recently learned about their culture. Education for Native Americans has previoulsy been controlled by the schools of the dominant society, with few allowances for Native Americans in need of traditional education to go somewhere and learn about their own traditional ways. One of the most important issues facing Native Americans today is to create places where this valuable re-acculturation can occur. It is hoped that more native and non-native people will work together to allow this process to continue to develop by funding programs that support Indian education.

Recently, there have been some small concessions made to Native Americans in isolated instances, perhaps because of new awareness of past atrocities. However, the representations of Native Americans in U.S. history books remain missing or inaccurate. It is vitally important to overcome the ignorance that still exists about Native Americans today due to lack of proper education and representation. Given that the perspective of each race, creed, and color is equally valid, it is hoped that the day will come soon where the perspective of the indigenous peoples of the U.S. will no longer be ignored.

Cultural Traditions Native American culture today is very much alive and evolving, so we’ll begin by learning about cultural traditions.

Indians have always been presented to the public as a type of side-show attraction; to make them either savage or romantic creatures. . . The idea of the Indian with a culture, art, and philosophy of his own has never been presented to or accepted by the public at large. . . A stereotyped pseudo-Indian has been presented all through Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 32

the years. The average person has had no personal contact with Indians, and has accepted the false and the spectacular as his standard of Indian behavior and character.35

It’s essential to have at least a general understanding of common cultural and religious practices of Native Americans in order to see how music fits in. "Being Indian is not a matter of blood: it is a way of life."36

In nearly every case imaginable, there are deviations from the descriptions of the practices mentioned here. The population loss, the separation of families and the cultural genocide has created many variances on spiritual practices that might otherwise have been more consistent. Tribal elders within the same tribe will encounter differences, so the rule of thumb for a given cultural practice is: If it’s done sincerely with a good heart, go with it and don’t argue about it.

Three Definitions of Spirit When the word “spirit” is used in the Native American world, it helps to know which context the word is intended for. One of the common misunderstandings of Native American religions is the assumption that there is a worship of many "Gods". While many subtle differences occur between tribal nations, there is generally a common view of a single God, or “Great Spirit.” From the Great Spirit (God) comes a number of manifestations that also do “God’s work”. The Mayans, for example, worshipped one God – Hunab Ku, and other deities were worshipped as being a part of the creator. Chac the Rain God, for example, would be worshipped to bring rain, but these prayers would go to Hunab Ku as well.

Another commonality among Native Americans is the belief in the father (or creator in the sky) which cannot be seen, often referred to as "Father Sky". Our planet is lovingly referred to as "Mother Earth", the feminine deity that represents all things that exist on this Earth. References to sky and earth (male and female energies) are also referred to as grandfather and grandmother.

Unfortunately, many misconceptions developed, partly due to the language barrier. Assumptions were made about Native Americans without any attempt to consult or communicate. One historical account by De Smet interpreted the oath of striking the ground with the hand and pointing to the sky to mean the earth produces nothing but evil, while all that is good comes from above, when in reality they saying that the earth was their mother and the sky the father, and they were swearing by

35 Reginald and Gladys Laubin. Indian Dances of North America, Norman, University of Oklahoma Press, 1977, 72-73. 36 The Stand Rock Memorial Study Guide, p. 1. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 33

their holy parents, saying that all good came from the earth.37 The number of inaccuracies written down by white settlers due to language and lack of cultural understanding or even an attempt at cultural understanding is staggering. It requires time, patience, and an open mind to overcome past misconceptions and begin to understand an unfamiliar culture, or way of life.

Besides the Great Spirit (God), other manifestations are often referred to as “spirits”. These (deity) spirits are not separate from Father Sky or Mother Earth, but are related to them. Spirits of each of the four directions, spirits of the air, water, rocks, etc. are all considered to be part of one God, the Great Spirit. In the Indian community, it is common knowledge that none of these spirits act independently from God because they are part of God.

Another way the word “spirit” is used is in reference to the dead. Death is viewed as a natural process, and is not considered evil. Death is viewed as a transformation, not an ending. Since death happens to all of us, it is considered natural to continue to communicate with loved ones after they have passed. It is nothing unusual to speak or pray to spirits of deceased ancestors. These beliefs go as far back as the Mayan civilization, and probably earlier. In the world of traditional Native Americans, such activity is merely a way of life, and one who does not understand the ability to communicate with those passed on is considered insensitive or "disabled", meaning that a part of their mind, (that of psychic sensitivity), is simply not working, probably due to lack of practice.

It is believed that spirits of the deceased may be more rigorously contacted under specific conditions if there is a need. The contact is to be done by a person who is allowed to make such contact, such as a medicine man, pipe carrier, or an elder. In no case should a fee ever be charged for this!

The Medicine Wheel

The term "medicine wheel" was first applied to the Big Horn Medicine Wheel in Wyoming, the most southern and one of the largest in existence. The site consists

37 Laubin, p. 47. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 34

of a central circle of piled rock surrounded by a circle of stone. "Rays" of stones travel out from the central core of rock and its surrounding circle. The structure looks like the wheel of a bicycle. Smaller versions of medicine wheels are built by those practicing Native American tradional ways, and some have them in their homes or outdoor property.

On top of the Bighorn Range in Wyoming, a desolate 9,642 feet high, and only reachable during the warm summer months, lies an ancient Native American construction -- an 80' diameter wheel-like pattern made of stones. At the center of the circle is a doughnut- shaped pile of stones (called a cairn) connected to the rim by 28 spoke-like lines of stones. Six more stone cairns are arranged around the circle; most large enough to hold a sitting human. The central cairn is about 12 feet in diameter and 2' high. If you stand or sit at one cairn looking towards another, you will be pointed to certain places on the distant horizon. These points indicate where the Sun rises or sets on summer solstice and where certain important stars rise heliacally, that is, first rise at dawn after being behind the Sun. The dawn stars helped foretell when the Sun ceremonial days would be coming. The area is free of snow only for 2 months -- around the summer solstice. The wheel has 28 spokes, the same number used in the roofs of ceremonial buildings such as the Lakota Sundance lodge. These always includes an entrance to the east, facing the rising Sun, and include 28 rafters for the 28 days in the lunar cycle. The number 28 is sacred to some of the Indian tribes because of its significance as the lunar month.38

A Medicine Wheel is a physical manifestation of Spiritual energy; an outward expression of an internal dialogue, a mirror in which we can better SEE what is going on within us. It is a wheel of protection that enables and allows us to gather surrounding energies into a focal point to commune with Spirit, Self and Nature (ALL elemental forces)...... Creation!

It helps us with our "Vision," to see exactly where we are and in which areas we need to develop in order to realize and become our potential. We are all connected to one another; we add color, dimension, and life to each other, to all of life. No matter

38 http://solar-center.stanford.edu/AO/bighorn.html

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what color, race or creed we are, we need each of us to create a beautiful existence and expression of the Whole.

Like so many other things...it is a tool to be used for the upliftment and betterment of mankind, healing and connecting to infinite. We are all but one realization of "God" trying to realize self...so let’s see what part we ourselves are.

As we grow, we change like the seasons, passing through the sections of the circle, learning from each. The center of the circle is the touching of the Spirit, the pure of heart, the truth as everything extends from the circle and everything comes together in the middle. For this reason the circle is used for ceremony, especially those that involve contacting the spirit world. This is a safe and protected place of love, a centered and grounding area. -Tree-Song-39

The Sacred Circle The circle is sacred to most Native American cultures, and it represents the universe, which has no beginning and no end. Most ceremonies are performed in a circle. When used in a ceremony, the circle is considered to have healing powers. The circular shape is used in medicine wheels, which illustrate the four, eight, or directions (explained below).

The Four Directions References to the directions are quite common. Prayers are said to the spirits of the four directions; north, south, east, and west in many different tribal nations. Some tribes may indicate northwest, southwest, northeast, and southeast as directions as well, making eight directions, while others refer to seven directions - north, south, east, west, up, down, and finally, the heart (the direction from within.) Directions are associated with the elements of fire, air, earth, and water. The matching of specific directions with one of the elements differs between tribes, as well as the specific direction as it relates to a certain purpose. Four colors are usually given to the four directions as well, and they also vary between tribal nations. The meaning of decorative colors on objects and in paint for the face and body will vary between tribes.

The Pipe The calumet is a French word taken from calumus, (Latin for "reed"), given for the ceremonial pipes in use among Native Americans in the early days. The stems of the early pipes may have been hollow reeds, but in more recent times have usually been made of ash, cedar, mahogany, ebony, poplar, or sumac, with the center pith

39 http://www.spiritualnetwork.net/native/medicine_wheel.htm

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being removed to make the hole. Pipes have been used by indigenous peoples in North America for several thousand years. They were always sacred and handled in ritualistic ways, often with elaborate ceremony.

Indian pipes usually had bowls of stone, the most prized being Catlinite, which comes from only two places - the well-known quarry at Pipestone, Minnesota, and a smaller, little-known quarry in Wisconsin. . . Most of the early accounts state that the calumets had stone bowls and fan-like decorations made of golden eagle tails. The bowl was an altar, in which the sacred incense burned, wafted to the spirits above. The feather fan decoration symbolized the brushing away of evil.40

Many pipes are decorated with the eagle, which is the most honored bird in Native American culture. Over time, only the pipe stems were used and the not the stone bowls in sacred ceremonies – first in the east, and later in the west. Not all tribal nations use the pipe. There are a few plains tribes such as the Kiowas, Arapahos, and Cheyennes who do not have a pipe ritual, but these are by far the minority.

Lakota White Buffalo Pipe41

Pipes are generally carried only by those who have earned the honor to do so, such as the chief of a village, a medicine man, or a person who has earned the right to carry the pipe through honorable deeds. Only pipe carriers are allowed to conduct a ceremony using the pipe, such as a sweat or medicine ceremony. In Native American tradition, pipes are “passed” in ceremony, and others who share that ceremony partake of the or herbal mixture in the pipe. The pipe is usually puffed with the idea of expelling the tobacco in the air to the creator vs. a deep inhalation. Contrary to myth, hallucinogenic drugs such as marijuana, crack, or

40 Laubin, 230. 41 http://www.barefootsworld.net/chanunpa.html

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peyote are NOT smoked in Native American pipes. The peyote ceremony will be discussed later, but even so, peyote is NOT “smoked”!

Ceremonial pipes are used for prayer, and it is believed that the pipe has great power as long as the keeper of the pipe lives an honorable life. If not, the powers will leave and ill-fortune may befall a dishonorable keeper. It is believed that as the smoke rises upwards, prayers are delivered to the Creator. One does not own a pipe but “carries” the pipe, reflecting the native perspective of emphasizing responsibility, not ownership. Large and intricately decorated, the ceremonial pipes are stored in beautiful bags embroidered with beads, quills, and other decorations.

Arapaho Pipe Bag42

Native Amercian pipes are NEVER TO BE SOLD OR PURCHASED. They are always passed down from someone with the right to give that pipe to a pipe carrier or new pipe carrier. A few vendors may try to sell them at Pow Wows, which is considered to be a high degree of disrespect. I have been at a Pow Wow when a vendor was discovered to be selling pipes. The vendor(s) and booth were removed from the grounds rather roughly in record time, and “invited” never to return to any Pow Wow again. Selling a pipe is the rough equivalent of someone selling a priest’s robe or collar, assuming the buyer would then wear it not as a costume, but to assume a real-life role of a priest without any training or honorable right to do so.

A Typical Pipe Ceremony It is considered an honor to be selected to “hold” or “carry” the pipe. This description comes from the Lakota (Sioux) tradition:

42 http://www.native-languages.org/bags.htm

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The sacred pipe and ceremony are at the heart of native people's culture, as they travel the Red Road, the native road of balance in a good way, their way, our way, the way of Wakan-Tanka, the Creator, the way of Tunkashila, the living breath of the Great Spirit Mystery, and the way of the Helpers, the way of love and freedom, here on the back of our Earth Mother. Simply put, the smoke coming from the mouth symbolizes the truth being spoken, and the plumes of smoke provide a path for prayers to reach the Great Spirit, and for the Great Spirit to travel down to Mother Earth.

The sacred pipe is a spiritual artifact, a religious altar, always to be treated with respect and care, and used only in a sacred manner. When it is put together with the stem it is sacred.

The ceremony is really very simple. The pipe, a pinch at a time, is loaded with tobacco, or a tobacco mixed with sweet smelling herbs, barks and roots such as bayberry, bearberry, mugwort, lovage, red willow inner bark, wild cherry bark, white willow bark, birch bark, and many others indigenous to a local area. The cultivation of the tobacco and the mixture preparation were the sacred responsibility of the "Tobacco Society" of the tribe, and practices varied in each area.

The ceremonial tobacco is usually very strong, the tobacco used in North America is nicotiana rustica, and usually the smoke is not inhaled, but puffed into, then out of the mouth in each of the four directions, acknowledging Father Sky, Mother Earth, and the Great Spirit as the pipe is smoked and passed from one person to the next around the circle.

The pipe holder stands holding the bowl of the pipe in his left hand, the stem in his right, pointing the stem to the East. He sprinkles a small amount of tobacco on the ground as an offering to Mother Earth and The East. As he loads a small pinch of tobacco into the pipe, he will say something like:

"The East is Red. The East is where the Morning Star rises, the Star of Knowledge. Red is for the Rising Sun which brings us a new day and another chance to learn. We thank the Great Spirit for each day we are allowed to live upon Mother Earth under Father Sky, Tunkashila. We pray for Knowledge, for from Knowledge comes Peace".

The pipe holder faces the South and again gives tobacco to Mother Earth, continues to load the pipe, saying something like:

"The South is Yellow. Yellow is for the color of Spring and the warm south wind, and the yellow hoop. While we load this pipe, we give thanks for our strength, growth, and healing that is brought forth from the south wind. We use this as a time of planting so that the seeds may grow into a new life."

The pipe holder faces the West and again gives tobacco to Mother Earth, continues to load the pipe, saying something like: Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 39

"West is Black. West is where the Sun sets. West is where the Spirit Helpers live and black stands for the Spirit World. We will all go to the Spirit World and we will all know one another and our deeds. We seek our spiritual wisdom in the West and pray for help from our Spirit Guides".

The same is done for the North:

"White is for the North. The White Giant covers Mother Earth with the white blanket of snow. White Buffalo Calf Woman, Ptecincala Ska Wakan Winan, came to us from the North. We stand here seeking endurance and health from the North".

The pipe holder now touches the stem to the ground, saying something like:

"Green is the color of Mother Earth. We are all part of Mother Earth, each rock, each four legged, each two legged, all creatures, plants and minerals. We are all related. We respect our Mother Earth and protect her".

The pipe holder now holds pipe above his head with the stem up at an angle, perhaps at the Sun or Moon:

"Father Sky in union with Mother Earth are our true parents. Father Sky gives us energy for our lives, heats our bodies and our lodges. We are thankful for Father Sky".

The pipe holder now holds the stem straight up:

"Great Spirit, Creator of us all, Creator of all things, Creator of the four directions, Mother Earth, and Father Sky, we offer this pipe to you.”

Now the pipe is lit, and passed around the circle sunwise from east to south to west to north, returning to the east, and each person is free to offer a prayer or saying if they choose.

On completion of its journey around the sacred circle the pipe is capped with sage or bark, and separated, the stem from the pipe, set aside in its pouch until it is smoked again. The typical pipe pouch has separate compartments for the pipe and the stem so that they do not touch when not being used in ritual ceremony.43

-Barefoot Windwalker-

43 http://www.barefootsworld.net/chanunpa.html

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The Natural World Traditionally, Native Americans have remained as close to nature as possible, as a means of survival and of maintaining spirituality. Everything on Mother Earth deserves respect; to respect Mother Earth is to respect one's self. Not only do trees, bodies of water, soil, rocks, etc. deserve respect, but they also have power. Stories are told and songs are sung of spirits that represent many aspects of Mother Earth. These spirits can help or hinder one's progress on the planet.

Native Americans frequently equate little difference between a keen sense of awareness of natural elements and what other cultures call "supernatural" powers, i.e., the rocks "telling" someone which way to go to get to water. This may seem like "hocus pocus" or "weird stuff" to those who fear or trivialize the mind’s capability to develop intuition. Perhaps this is because their senses have been thoroughly deadened in a modern, urbanized society, but intuitive abilities are perfectly natural in the Native American (and many other) cultures. The importance of listening to one's inner self, following "hunches", "feelings", and "dreams" - while very important in Native American society, sometimes surprises or confuses those accustomed to ignoring their intuitive side.

Native American Herbs Through necessity and as a way of life, Native Americans developed a thorough knowledge of herbs and their uses, particularly for healing properties. One who acquired an extensive knowledge of herbs as medicine came to be known as a "medicine man", and the term remains today. Some medicine men conduct special ceremonies, and use medicine in many of those ceremonies. In recent times, medicine women also do healings, much like in the U.S. when doctors once were all men. Times change!

Herbs are used for ceremonial purposes as well. The four most common herbs used are tobacco, cedar, sage, and sweetgrass. Given is an Anishinaabe (Ojibwe) teaching about the herbs:

The four sacred plants are gift of the Four Manido (Spirits of the Four Directions). To those who live in the traditional way, there are four plants which are especially revered and used in daily living. The creator taught us to use the natural herbs of sage, sweetgrass, tobacco, and cedar smoke as a physical reminder to them of this omnipotent presence. It is the sacred way.

Tobacco (Semah) Semah, or tobacco, is one of the four sacred plants. It represents the Eastern Direction and the mind. The Anishinaabe use a form of tobacco known as kinikinik, or a red willow mix because it opens the door to the creator. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 41

When tobacco is used to make smoke, it is one of the most sacred of plants for Native people. Some elders say that tobacco is used to connect the worlds since the plant’s roots go deep into the earth, and its smoke rises high into the sky. This plant is highly respected and highly honored. Giving tobacco is a beautiful way of our people. Ceremonies using tobacco invoke a relationship with the energies of the universe, and ultimately the Creator, and the bond made between earthly and spiritual realms is not to be broken.

There are four traditional Tobacco uses. None of them will harm you.

Prayer When we put sacred tobacco into our Sacred Pipes, we are also using that tobacco as a communicator to the sky world where all of our ancestors have gone on before us. We do not inhale the sacred smoke that comes from the pipe. When the smoke rises, it is taking our prayers with it up to the Creator and all of our relatives who have gone on before us. Our elders show us that when we finish with prayers, we sprinkle a small amount of tobacco on the drum. This is a way of giving back to and thanking the Creator for all he has given to us. Tobacco can be used on a daily basis as each new day is greeted with prayers of thankfulness. Many elders say to hold it in your prayers of thankfulness. They also add that you are to hold it in your left hand as this is the hand closer to your heart.

Offerings Traditionals (those who practice traditional ways) burn tobacco before storms. It is used to pray that powerful storms won’t hurt our families. To pray with tobacco in your Native language is very powerful. It can make a difference in the physical world.

Purification Tobacco is used in the offering of prayer to the Creator, acting as a medium for communication. It is either offered to the fire, so the smoke can lift the prayers to the Creator, or it is set on the ground in a nice, clean place. It means we come humbly to our creator. We proclaim our innocence. When you want to speak to the creator, we are told to make an offering of the tobacco plant. An Elder will take tobacco ties and offer them to the fire or offer it back to Mother Earth on behalf of the Sacred Circle. Anishinaabe people live life in a very sacred manner. When taking something from the Earth, they always explain to the spirit of the plant why it is being done and offer some tobacco in return for the generosity and help of the plant which shared itself so freely.

Purification, and working with a clear mind and heart are essential in asking the land to provide for people. This is keeping with the Native belief that if you do things in a good way, good things will follow. If careful attention is not established, the result will not be as good. Sometimes elders place tobacco on the water. This shows our thanks to the Creator, for the lifeblood of our Mother Earth that is provided to Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 42

us. At this time we also acknowledge the moon, who in her 28-day cycle cleanses the water by filtering it through the sands.

Respect Respecting our tobacco should be taken seriously. Sacred tobacco is used for prayers of gratitude to thank the Creator of Mother Earth for our many blessings, such as good health, great fishing, and good crops. When any plant is picked or any animal is taken, Tobacco and Prayer must be given to show respect. By honoring all our relations we demonstrate that we have not forgotten our place within the web of life. To offer someone tobacco is to ask that you and the person receiving the tobacco be of one heart, one mind and one spirit. Tobacco is offered when you ask someone to do a ceremony for you, such as a name-giving, drumming or singing for someone, to do a smudging ceremony, a sweat lodge or sacred pipe ceremony; any ceremony. This signifies that you and the one doing the ceremony are of one heart, one mind and one spirit, that you have the same purpose.

Another way that is used to bring people together in unity is to heal rifts between people. If you have a disagreement that causes ill feelings, or someone has treated you badly, or if you have treated someone badly, you can bring tobacco and ask to speak to the person. Then of course, you would do your best to heal the rift, not to make things worse, so tobacco assists us in making amends, getting over resentments, healing emotional wounds and in forgiving people. Even a little tobacco can be given if you do not have money for a pouch. It is the sacredness that counts, not the amount. The person can decide to accept your tobacco or reject.

Some of our Elders still offer tobacco to everyone who visits them. Tobacco is given to elders when one is seeking advice. It is always good to offer tobacco when seeking knowledge or advice from an Elder or when a Pipe is present. It shows gratitude and respect for the elder whose advice you are seeking. Tobacco is given when you appreciate a teaching from an elder or even a younger person if you value what that person has told you. It is a way of showing respect and gratitude.

The offering of tobacco may be a pinch, a bag, or even a modern day cigarette (the latter is less preferred by traditionals). The person being offered the tobacco may or may not accept the offer, depending upon the issue to be dealt with. If the tobacco is accepted, it is a binding contract, and the deed must be followed through. The Anishinaabe teaching continues:

Cedar (Keezhik)

Keezhik (Cedar) represents the Southern direction and the soul. The leaves are cleaned from the stems and separated into small pieces, which Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 43

are used in many ways. When burned, Keezhik acts as a purifier, cleansing the area in which it is burned and emitting a pleasant scent. True cedar is burnt while praying to the Great Mystery in meditation, and also to bless a house before moving in. Cedar was offered to the fire to smudge the lodge and people. It is also used to waft the smoke to ward away sickness. In traditional medicine, a compound decoction of twigs was made into an herbal steam for rheumatism. It works both as a purifier and as a way to attract GOOD energy in your direction. Elders say “put some in your shoes and only goodness will come your way”. Many traditional women keep some cedar in their left pocket. When you breathe in the smell of cedar you decide that you're going to have courage and stamina and that you're going to survive. You think of what the herb means, why it was given to us … It's not magic.

Sage (Sukodawabuk)

Sukodawabuk, also known as sage, is used in much the same way as Keezhik (cedar). It is burned as a purifier, but when compared to the "piney" scent of cedar, sage has a spice air. Sukodawabuk represents the Western direction. Sage is used by the original peoples to make their prayers, to signal the creator of one's need for help. There are many varieties of Sage and all are effective in smudging. Smudging is a way of using the smoke from burning herbs to cleanse the body, an object, or a given area of negative influences. Many Native Americans used varieties of sage for medicinal purposes as well as for religious ceremonies. The burning of Sage in smudging ceremonies is to drive out evil spirits, negative thoughts and feelings, and to keep negative entities away. The root was used by the Ojibwa(e) in three ways: as an anti- convulsive, on wounds to stop bleeding, and as a stimulant. The Potawatomi burned the plant to smudge and also used it as poultice on long-standing sores.

Sweet Grass (Weengush)

Weengush, or sweet grass, is used to cleanse the mind, body and spirit. It is considered sacred because it is symbolic of purification. It represents the Northern direction and the body. The elders tell us that scent of these natural herbs is pleasing to the creator and will incline him to hear the ceremony with favor. The smoke is considered distasteful to all evil beings and thwarts their powers. This plant plays an important part in ceremonies of spiritual significance. When Weengush is used in ceremony, each person is to fan the sweet grass smoke, first to their heart, second to their mind, third around their body and lastly, return the smoke to their heart. The prayer said during this process is: "Great Mystery, please cleanse me of my negativity and fill me with the positive energies of love, so that, as I am healed, so may I work for the healing of our Earth Mother."

Because it signifies the hair of Nokimis Akiin (Our Grandmother the Earth) it is usually braided. Each of the three sections that go into the braid has a specific meaning, being mind, body and spirit. Because the Anishinaabe people live life in a very sacred manner, Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 44

when taking something from the Earth, they always explain to the spirit of the plant why it is being done and offer some tobacco in return for the generosity and help of the plant, which shared itself so freely.

Many sacred and cultural objects re made with Weengush. The Men’s grass dance outfits are symbolic of the sacred plant. A braid of sweet grass was traditionally tied to the dancers' belts. The colorful yarn or fringe that sways from their regalia symbolizes sweet grass swaying in the wind. Weengush is also used to make coiled baskets called unity baskets. These Unity baskets are not for sale. It is said that in the old days very small ones kept children's navel cords. Sweet grass is a very powerful herb.

The elders tell us that "Sweet Grass is the “hair of our Mother”, each strand alone is not as strong as when braided together." The braid represents to us the great strength a united 44 tribe has opposed to a divided one.

It is traditional practice that after any herbs are burned, the (extinguished!) ashes are not thrown away in the trash, but are to be returned to the earth outside.

Gender Roles In Native American societies, women are given a very high degree of respect, are highly protected, and are treated as equal, and in many tribal nations, women are considered to be the more powerful of the two sexes. This may surprise the outsider who may think Native American women play a subservient role. Of course, the role of women has undergone changes in many societies in the past hundred years or so, especially in terms of what was “proper” for women to do. Native American society is no different. In traditional music, women were once excluded (except for some singing) largely because their role was seen to be elsewhere. Nowadays, more women sing in drum groups, and there are a few drum groups for women only. Some welcome the changes; others frown upon them. Both sexes participate in Pow Wow dancing fairly equally, but in the past, men tended to do more of the dancing. Each tribal society ties gender roles into an intricately woven fabric, and while behaviors vary from tribe to tribe, traditional roles are rarely violated.

The word "squaw" originally was a definition of women before the colonists came, but unfortunately became a derogatory word used by whites in the 19th century as an obscene reference to female body parts. Efforts to “win the word back” are underway, but for now, anyone with even the slightest sensitivity toward Native American women would from use of that word.

44 http://www.geocities.com/redroadcollective/SacredTobacco.html

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Respect for Elders Native Americans, like many other cultures, have a profound, universal respect for their elders, who are considered to be the most wise and important people in the community. They are cared for, asked for advice, and given the utmost reverence. Needless to say, there are no homeless elderly people in traditional Native American communities.

Leadership Roles The role of leadership by chiefs, medicine men, or in a few cases monarchs, was never absolute, but collaborative in nature. Respect for leadership is in the same spirit as respect for elders. In some traditional Native American societies, the tribal head was selected based on honesty, courage, generosity, and moral ethics. In addition to being the spiritual leader, the chief was usually the poorest man in the village, and would give away anything that was not considered absolutely essential to those who were in need. Another essential skill for leadership was to be a good listener and to complain very little, a highly respected virtue. When the leader spoke, a soft verbal style using only the fewest and most meaningful words was the trademark of policy. Wouldn’t it be refreshing to witness more of these qualities in political leadership at all levels?

The Sweat Ceremony This fairly common ceremony dates back to the Maya and probably before, and is for the purpose of cleansing, purification, and prayer. Detailed teachings about this ceremony, commonly held in a lodge, are done through the oral tradition for those sincerely interested in taking part. Prayers and songs done in the sweat ceremony are considered sacred.

To properly inquire about participating in a sweat ceremony, it is necessary to offer tobacco to someone who performs and is qualified to perform a traditional Native American Sweat Ceremony. Or, one can offer tobacco to a person who knows someone who performs “sweats”, and they will tobacco to the person and ask the question for you. If such a teaching is agreed to, and one is set up, it is proper to bring additional tobacco or a small gift, and some traditional food for a meal after the sweat is conducted. In no case should money ever be exchanged for such a teaching.

An important reminder is that tobacco is a two-way contract, and it would be unheard of for the one offering the tobacco to withdraw from participating if the tobacco is accepted for the purpose of performing the sweat ceremony. Every pipe carrier I’ve ever met has told me that once they accept tobacco; they have to do what was asked of them. It is common for Native Americans who practice traditional ways to participate in a Sweat Ceremony several times a month, and Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 46

those who perform such ceremonies may conduct several sweats in a weekend. Sweat Ceremonies are not conducted unless one qualified to lead such a ceremony is present in the lodge.

Navajo spiritual guide Winnie Many Horses meditates before commencing a sweat lodge ceremony in Canyon de Chelly45

The sacred Native American sweat lodge is open to people of any faith, and the ceremony is conducted by one or more pipe carriers who have earned the right to conduct it. To build a sweat lodge, flexible tree branches are bent and fastened to the ground. In the old days animal skins covered the top of the lodge to hold heat in. Nowadays a tarp or canvas covers the lodge. Rocks (“grandfathers”) are heated in a large fire outside the lodge, to be placed in a pit dug in the center of the lodge.

When the participants go inside, some initial words or prayers are done. Then, the hot rocks are brought in, placed in the pit, and a non-hallucinogenic herbal mixture with water is poured over them. The steam is very intense and the heat is breathtaking. A pipe is often passed and prayers are said. Songs are sung and more prayers follow. After 30 minutes or more, the flap is opened to let in a little cooler air and to add more hot rocks for the next round. Generally four rounds like this are done, adding more hot rocks each time. The ceremony usually lasts from 2- 3 hours, and different prayers and songs occur for each round, which are often dedicated to the children, the sick, women, overcoming addictions, personal or family crises, or anyone suffering in some way. As participants in the lodge willingly take on suffering for those in need, they are purifying themselves too. After this

45 www.mokitreks.com/national_geo_traveler.php Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 47

ceremony, the body is well cleansed of impurities! Today, many tribes allow non- Native Americans sincere about purifying and praying to participate in what likely will be a meaningful and memorable experience.

When my wife Toni and I were waiting to go in to the sweat lodge for the very first time, we were pretty nervous. I asked one of the regulars how many “grandfathers” (rocks) would there be for this ceremony; just how hot are we going to get? He looked at me matter-of-factly and answered - “You’ll get what you need, no more – no less.”

I thought about this for a long time afterwards. Elders in charge of sweat lodges know how much heat to give everyone through their prayers, and which songs to bring into the lodge. It’s never the same. The idea is - have no fear; the Creator knows exactly what we need.

Humor is an important element too:

Since “sweats” can get really hot, it’s easy to be apprehensive. As soon as everyone is inside the lodge and the flap door is first closed, it is so dark you literally can’t see an inch in front of you! On one particular sweat I recall the pipe carrier saying “OK! If it’s your first time in a sweat lodge, raise your hand.” (Of course if you did raise your hand it was so dark in there no one could possibly see it!). We all broke out laughing.

The Naming Ceremony In traditional Native American cultures, names for babies can be chosen by the parents, but, if the parents wish, a baby's name can be given by a medicine man or pipe carrier. Tobacco is offered (by a parent) to a carefully chosen person qualified to give names. Through the vision of the pipe carrier, medicine man, or qualified tribal elder, a name is selected through a vision or a dream.

The criteria for being given a name vary considerably, as do songs and ceremonies for that purpose. The origin of Indian names is harder to understand today because few people are raised in traditional Native American societies and because many claim an Indian name today, whether “of blood” or not. Someone’s Indian name may or may not be considered legitimate. The way I was taught was if one was not raised in a traditional tribal way, then an Indian name had to be earned. The right to that name came with regular ceremonial requirements (sweat lodges and vision quests); some of which are quite rigorous. But, I’ve also seen non-Indians receive an Indian name on the spot, and some that have been given a name without even asking for it! Others take a name that they have dreamed themselves through a powerful vision. In some cases, this is considered acceptable, but there are always those who may have just claimed a name, or made one up. Anyone with an Indian Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 48

name not raised in traditional tribal ways must have close ties and frequent teachings with a traditional pipe carrier, and should take part in traditional ceremonies. That ensures that traditions are continued in a good way. Personally, I think Indian names are beautiful. If you claim an Indian name, remember:

Don’t talk the talk unless you are ready to walk the walk.

The walk I’m referring to is generally called the “Red Road.”

The Vision Quest The Vision Quest is a special time for men (and in modern times - women) to ask themselves who they are and what their purpose is on this planet. This is usually done during adolescence in traditional Native American societies, but can be appropriate any time one has arrived at a major crossroad in their life. As Native American flutist R. Carlos Nakai's maternal grandmother states:

Make sure you learn to take care of yourself and learn to find your own dream in the world. Listen, think about it, make it teach you and in that way you'll know what it's like to feel good about yourself.

The Vision Quest is not done casually. Usually the person finds a place to be alone, and fasts (no food or water) for a grueling period of (typically) four days and three nights. During that time, prayers go to the Great Spirit in hopes of receiving a message indicating what it is that person is to do, and what their main purposes in life are. The message may come in the form of a powerful dream or vision. Not all Vision Quests necessarily produce a dream or vision, and may need to be repeated. There are also those who may have done a vision quest earlier in their life who feel the need to reevaluate their purpose, and may do an additional vision quest. Some may do several Vision Quests in a lifetime.

Clans (Totems) A totem is any natural object, being or animal which has personal symbolic meaning to an individual and to whose phenomena and energy one feels closely associated with during one's life. Native Americans observing traditional ways have a deep reverence for all life forms. When an animal was hunted and killed for food or clothing, prayers were offered to the animal's clan as a sign of respect before and after the hunt. For Native Americans, their personal totem animal gave them protection, guidance and power while hunting, in battle, and on spiritual quests.

It was said that our clans were here before the humans inhabited the earth. The animals of all kinds were told by the Creator that humans would come and would not have anything and would be pitiful. The animals said they would take care of the Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 49

humans; show them how to live in harmony with all of Creation. We will sacrifice ourselves as food and supply them with our furs to keep them warm. We will teach them what medicines and ceremonies to use to heal themselves.

It is said that your clan is with you from the day you are born. It walks with you and looks after you. You must always offer tobacco when you ask your clan for help. Within the Clan stucture of the Six Nations (Potowatomi), the clan is passed down through the women. Among others the children of the family are of their father's clan. The clans of a Tribe are often the animals and other creatures thqt inhabit the area. The wolf, bear, , and deer are common clans of the great lakes area. Others are the turtle, bear, wolf, rock, snake, pipe of peace and the heron. Within the clans, there are different types of that animal such as snapping turtles and painted turtles in the turtle clan. Each clan has its own duties and responsibilities. You should consult the elder clan members for the exact teachings of your clans.

In the great lakes area the crane clan for example, is involved in leadership and the sharing of knowledge. It is said that cranes have a loud voice that can be heard for miles. The eagle clan represents the family unit; both parents protect and bring food to the eaglets. The eagle also teaches respect, hunting, being a warrior, and being in balance with nature.

The bear clan is like the gaurdians of the communities, protectors and carriers of medicine too.

Learning Your Clan To inquire about your clan if you are not aware of which clan you belong to, you can offer tobacco and make the request to know what your clan is to a spiritual person who has the ability to find out what clan is watching over you.

Honoring Your Clan To honor your clan is to be a brother, sister, aunt, uncle to all the people who are of your clan. If the person you meet in your clan is younger than you, they are considered your niece or nephew. If they are of the same age, they are considered to be your brother or sister. It is your responsibility to take care of the relatives of the clan. If someone from the clan visits your area, you are to take care of them. Depending on your clan, you may feast your clan monthly, once or twice a year, or four times a year at the change of the seasons. Many people leave an offering of food and tobacco on the ground or water. Clan ceremonies are also held by different clans.

Some bear clan people feed their clan when the bear is going into hibernation and in the spring when the cubs are born. They may leave berries, fish and other meats that bears like to eat. Generally, a food offering will consist of any foods your clan would eat. In the past, clans were painted on warrier shields encircled with Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 50

medicine bundles. Today, items representing that animal are hung in a respectful manner.46

Sometimes during the vision quest one will find out what clan they belong to, or as some say, what clan “belongs to them”. During the meditation and fasting, one would experience spiritual and psychic phenomena, including visits from animal spirits, such as the eagle, mountain lion, snake etc. Finally one animal spirit would come forward as the future totem animal. Often the initiate’s spirit would enter into the form of the animal and experience its emotions, needs and shape. The warrior would absorb the power and physical traits of the totem animal - the swiftness of the deer, far-sightedness of the eagle, or power of the bear. In time of danger the warrior would call upon his totem animal for strength and courage.

Additional energy was given to the warrior if he wore a talisman of his totem animal, such as a bear tooth necklace for strength and protection. Animal totems were often represented by carvings, such as personal or village totem poles or artifacts such as carved statues. Medicine pouches also contained pieces of hides, talons, feathers etc. for personal and medicinal use.

A tribal name can also be given to the warrior according to his with his totem animal and its various abilities. For example, in the movie Dances with Wolves, the soldier earns his name by being seen dancing and playing with the wild wolves of the prairies. Maidens of the tribe were often given names which parents hoped would reflect their feminine aspects, i.e.; White Dove for gentleness and peace.

Clans remain a vital part of today’s Native American way of life. Below is an example of how the clan teachings are incorporated into the curriculum at Leech Lake Tribal College in Minnesota. A very creative Academic Teaching Model can also be found on the website address.

As Eddie Benton-Benai notes in his classic, The Mishomis Book: The Voice of the Ojibway, each of the seven original Anishinaabe clans was assigned a specific function in serving the people. An animal totem symbolized the strength and duties of the clan. Based on this teaching, the above model also signifies specific qualities embedded within the Guiding Principles, the curriculum, and the Student Learning Objectives of Leech Lake Tribal College degree programs. For example:

46 http://www.gather.com/viewArticle.action?articleId=281474976876993

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Indigenous Leadership Studies  Bird Clan, symbolized by an Eagle, represented the spiritual leaders of the people and gave the nation its vision of well-being and its highest development of the spirit.

Residential Carpentry, Construction Electricity  Hoof Clan members, symbolized by Deer, Moose, and Caribou, were gentle people who cared for the community by making sure that their basic needs for housing, food, etc. were met.

Business Management  Marten Clan members were strategists in planning for their people’s survival.

Liberal Education, Indigenous Leadership  Crane and Loon Clans provided different styles of leadership, giving the people a balanced government, with each serving as a check on the other.

Law Enforcement  Bear Clan members served as the strong and steady police and legal guardians of the people.

Early Childhood Education, Liberal Education  Fish Clan members were teachers and scholars.47

47 http://www.lltc.edu/academics/ Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 52

The Sun Dance The Sun Dance of the Native American Tribes of the plains and woodlands is one of the most intense ceremonies in existence. It is in recognition of the sun, the giver of light and life. While only a select few are selected or qualified to willingly endure this grueling event, the entire tribe takes part in some way. The dancers sacrifice what is most precious - their own skin, or "red blanket", and their own blood to the Great Spirit. The suffering is taken on willingly, and may be for personal reasons, for someone else who needs help, or for the people of an entire indigenous community, in hopes things will go better for that community.

To prepare for this four-day event usually requires an entire year for the dancers to get ready. This preparation involves many teachings, sweat lodges, and/or ceremonies. There may be four days of preparation before the actual dancing as well. Dancers go through four days and three nights of dancing with little rest, no food, or water. On the third day, there is often piercing of the skin through pegs (or skewers) going into the chest, attached by rope to a sacred tree in the center of the circle. Participants will dance until the pegs rip through the flesh. The intense pain endured for this ceremony is for a very specific and important purpose, according to each individual dancer.

Sun dancers usually do at least one Sun Dance a year for four years, and many continue for years beyond that. Despite the initial horror about this ceremony from the white settlers in the past, deaths or serious injury as a result of this are relatively unknown. The suffering is a willing act of love, and a high form of sacrifice.

The sun dancers I have met are greatly respected for accepting suffering for the sake of others. Before the ceremony, first-time sun dancers constantly work on eliminating any anger toward past atrocities before entering the sun dance circle. By going through this intense suffering, one learns how to be truly compassionate.

Masks and Paint Many tribes used masks to a limited extent, but in the northwest coast, masks were quite elaborate. In Native American society, wearing a mask is to temporarily become whatever being, character, or spirit that person represents. In the Iroquois and Senecas, the masks are worn by a society of healers, whereas the masks of the northwest coast represent mythical beings, birds, animals, and monsters.

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Haida Bird Mask (Washington State)48

The healers, once scoffed at by whites, have been known to have cured a number of patients that had been given up on by non-Native American doctors.49 Masks are also used by southwestern tribes, such as the Navajos, and also in the Hopi kachina ceremonies.

Masks of wood are typically carved on a living basswood tree after appropriate ceremonies and offerings of tobacco to the spirit of the tree. Trees typically still live after the masks are carved out. Long horsehair is fastened to the masks, with a part to resemble human hair. Eyes were made of tin, copper, brass, and clamshells in the old days.

Christian missionaries jumped to conclusions and proclaimed all of these mask-using Indians as idolaters or pagans. The masks were not worshipped, nor were the faces carved on the posts. They represented the spirit force, or power; they were symbols of the beings, and endowed the wearers with power and the temporary ability to behave like the beings. The masks, whether worn or stationary, were "something to focus attention upon" and aided the participants in a ceremony to concentrate on the power represented.50

Humor would sometimes enter into some of the ceremonies involving masks, but the humor would not involve laughing at the masks, for that could invoke bad luck. The

48http://www.washington.edu/burkemuseum/collections/ethnology/collections/display.php?ID=35001 49 Laubin, 114. 50 Laubin, 116. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 54

humor would be within the ceremonies themselves. In healing ceremonies, the only "price" that one would pay would be that the cured and those requesting the curing would become members of the society.51

In areas where masks were not used, paint for the face and body was common, although paint was also used in tribes that used masks as well. The function of face paint is much the same as the mask, with only an occasional "cosmetic" purpose to look good. In addition to spiritual aspects, past historical events could be represented with painting. Today, painting is less common on a daily basis than in the old days, when painting was part of traditional daily dress and daily life. Although painting the face is common in warrior societies, one must withhold from adopting the common myth that all paint is "war paint", for it was common to paint the entire body for many purposes besides to do battle. Another origin of the name "redskin" comes from the tradition of the eastern tribes painting with red ochre, but this custom is quite old. The skin color of Native Americans is brown, not red; yet when whites become sunburned, the color is much closer to red. Mainly, the meaning of colors in body painting and masks vary by tribal custom.

The Dream Catcher Native Americans believed that dreams, both good and bad, descended from the night sky. Wisdom and knowledge come to people in their dreams, so dreams are encouraged, and it is important to remember what one dreams. Dreams can provide protection, guidance, assistance, and good luck. Charms made from items of significance are used to help people dream, such as cloth from the shirt of a great hunter, or hair from the head of a very knowledgeable person to ensure wisdom; fur from an animal to symbolize the kinship to nature, and many other possibilities. Charms for babies were hung on the top of the cradleboard in the form of the web, and were usually given by those who had named the baby. Spider webs are made from a hoop filled with yarn or sinew, and is fashioned to resemble a real web. Bad dreams were captured in a web and held there until the rays of the morning sun evaporated them. Good dreams slipped through the holes in the web on to the dreamer. Today, dream catchers are not only used for infants, but may be hung over a bed to sift one's dreams and visions.

51 Laubin, 116. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 55

Dreamcatchers52

Indian Time I’ve been fortunate to learn first hand about “Indian time.” In traditional Native American teachings, speech is slow and careful, and the greatest respect is paid to those who are speaking. Interruptions are not tolerated, and there is no “hurry” because teachings are valued. “Indian time” is all about what really needs to be accomplished. Scheduled tasks are “pre-empted” when something more important comes up:

A Pow Wow is a Native American cultural celebration that welcomes all peoples to share in dancing and festivities. My wife and I were involved in organizing The “Mounds Pow Wow” in Whitewater, Wisconsin for five years. The first one we did was a learning experience. The first “Grand Entry” (the main event where all dancers come out in full regalia) was scheduled at 1:00 on Saturday. It was a nice day and a good crowd had gathered. As 1:00 approached, we noticed that many of the dancers had not completed putting on their outfits, and the head dancers were nowhere to be found. We had four or five drum groups there but only one was anywhere near the grand entry area. At 1:00, things were not much different, and

52 http://www.mysticcanyon.com/dreamcatchers.htm

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the spectators were looking at their watches wondering when the “show” was going to start. The event started 30 minutes “late.”

What had happened? It turned out that at 1pm, some of the dancers, elders, and spiritual leaders of the event were simply “not ready” from a mental and spiritual standpoint. It might have been possible for them to have run around, thrown on their outfits, and made a hasty dash to the dancing circle for the event to start “on time.” Instead, it was more important to make sure all the necessary preparations were completed – saying prayers, purifying with traditional herbs (sage, sweetgrass, cedar), offering tobacco to God (the Great Spirit), and carefully putting on their outfits, of which every article has a special significance to the dancer. Some of the elders had just arrived after getting up at 4 a.m. and driving seven or more hours, and needed a brief time to collect themselves mentally before beginning an entire afternoon (and evening) of dancing. The preparations, once completed, made the entire afternoon a delight. Had they all rushed and started at 1:00, the spectators would have been happier initially but the event would not have gone as well. Because the leaders waited to begin when everyone was “ready” the entire afternoon had a good feeling to it.

The best description of Indian time I know is:

YOU START WHEN YOU’RE READY AND YOU FINISH WHEN YOU’RE DONE.

Indian time follows the solid principle that anything worthwhile takes time, so you work on your important projects until you’ve got the sense of completion. My wife Toni and I learned another lesson about being “ready” to do something in our fourth year as officers of the same Pow Wow annual event:

After 10 months of meetings, we had done everything possible regarding the many details for this major outdoor community event. Two nights before the Pow Wow, our spiritual leader for that year had the entire Pow Wow committee, head dancers, and head drum group gather for an outdoor feast. He brought with him a guest of honor, a highly respected elder and medicine man. We soon realized this was more than a picnic. The real purpose of the feast was to ask “permission” from the creator (God) to have the event. We had been working on this for nearly a year! “Could the Pow Wow be cancelled just two days before the event?” we asked. The answer was, “Absolutely. If it doesn’t feel right, we all go home.”

“Had other Pow Wows like this been cancelled just before the event?” The reply was exactly the same. So, we all offered prayers for a good Pow Wow and visited. We honestly didn’t know how this decision was going to go. Then, a potential disaster of protocol occurred.

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As the meal was served, my wife was asked to prepare the plate of food called the “spirit plate,” which is offered to give thanks to the spirits (equivalent to angels in the Christian religion) for the food. A very small portion of each food item is put on the plate, placed out by a tree, and left there overnight. Toni prepared the spirit plate and gave it to the man who had asked for it. To our horror, the man took the meal, mistook it for a regular meal, and handed it to our distinguished guest as his dinner! The food was all mixed up into an unrecognizable goulash and was not really fit for human consumption! It was too late to correct the situation. The elder took the food and ate it with no visible reaction to his strange “dinner.” He finished his plate, and suddenly a big grin appeared on his face. He started telling jokes, one after another, until the whole group was in stitches. Then he got up and said, “Let’s sing some songs!” He went to the drum and we sang. That, as I learned later, was the sure sign we were “ready” to do the Pow Wow!

We learned from Indian time to not do something unless it has a purpose AND a good feel to it!

Native American Spirituality The following is one of the better discussions about difficulties of properly representing Native American religion/spirituality:

There are two reasons to be looking for information on Native American religions. The first, and easier to address, is educational. Either because you're a student who's been assigned to study or just out of intellectual and cultural curiosity you would like to learn more about how American Indians (or a particular tribe of American Indians) view the world. If that's you, then your main problem is going to be identifying the authentic and trustworthy sources. Indians are happy to talk about their beliefs and spiritual practices, both historically and in the modern day. Unfortunately, so are plenty of ill-informed non-Indians (or people of Indian descent) who think they know a lot more than they do. And so are those unscrupulous souls willing to pretend they're something they're not in hopes of making a buck or getting a little attention. My best recommendation is to get a Native American book out of the library [by an author familiar with tribal tradition] as well as looking on the Internet. Any quack shaman can put up a website, but it's a lot harder to publish a book. I also suggest ignoring and avoiding information about American Indian spirituality presented by anyone…

a) …offering anything religious for sale. Money is never accepted by authentic holy people in exchange for Indian religious ceremonies like sweat lodges or sun dances, nor for religious items like medicine bags or smudged items. (They might sell arts and crafts, of course. Use your common sense--a devout Catholic might sell you a hand-carved crucifix to hang on your wall, for example, but he wouldn't sell communion wafers over the Internet or charge you admission to bring you to his church! Selling dreamcatchers or fetish carvings online is one thing, but don't Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 58

believe information provided by anyone who is trying to charge people for smudging or blessing anything, making medicine, or letting them take part in a sweat lodge or dance. They are not authentic sources of information.) (Webb – once more with feeling – do not buy pipes!)

b) …inviting you into their religion on their webpage. Authentic Indians may seek to educate strangers online, but actually adopting an outsider as part of their culture is only done face-to-face and after knowing the person for some time.

c) …claiming to be American Indian shamans, talking about tarot cards and Wiccan/pagan things, or talking about crystals and New Age things. I've got nothing against shamanism, paganism, or the New Age, but a cow is not a horse: none of these things are traditionally Native American. Shamanism is a Siberian mystic tradition. Wicca is a religion based in pre-Christian European traditions. Tarot readings are an Indo-European divination method, and the New Age is a syncretic belief system invented, as its name suggests, in the modern era. None of them have anything to do with authentic Indian traditions, and anyone who thinks they do is likely to be wrong about anything else he/she claims about Native American religions as well. Wiccans and New Agers don't have any more knowledge about actual American Indian beliefs than you do.

d) …identifying only as 'Native American' or 'American Indian' (an authentic person would list their actual tribal affiliation). Be a little wary, too, of people trying to speak with authority who identify as "mixed-blood" or "of Indian descent" or having a "Cherokee ancestor." There are certainly some mixed-blood people who were raised in their tribe's culture, but many more were not. A person who has rediscovered his Indian heritage as an adult is a seeker, not a teacher. He is not qualified to speak authoritatively about Native American religion or culture, for he wasn't raised that way and doesn't have any more knowledge about it than anyone else learning about it second-hand-- including you.

If you're trying to learn about American Indian religion because you want to become a part of it, though, you not only face that problem, but another, much deeper one as well: American Indian spirituality is not evangelistic. It is private and entirely cultural. You cannot convert to 'Native American' any more than you can convert to African-American or Korean or any other cultural identity you would need to be raised in to understand. (In fact, many Indians--myself included--are Christians in addition to our traditional tribal beliefs, just like many African-American and Korean people are Christian in addition to having an ethnicity of their own.) The only way to 'join' a Native American spiritual tradition is to become a member of the cultural group, and it's impossible to do that over the Internet. No one who truly believed in American Indian spirituality would ever offer to tutor total strangers in religious matters online, much less charge anyone money for such a thing. So, Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 59

by definition, the people who make these offers are those who either don't really believe in Native American spirituality, or don't know very much about it. Is that really who you want to be listening to?

Don't pay some new-age guru $250 to perform fake "Native American" rituals that would have offended your ancestors, go physically to their tribe and re-connect with their other descendants. It will be hard work convincing the people there that you are genuine but if you go with humility and patience you will eventually be accepted, and that is the ONLY way you will ever become part of the spiritual tradition you desire. There is no shortcut to that. Native spirituality belongs only to the cultural group, and anyone who tells you otherwise is trying to make some money off of you and/or to take a power trip at your expense. You've been warned… -Orrin Lewis, Cherokee-53

Contrary to popular myth, drugs or alcohol are never used during traditional Native American ceremonies, and are strictly forbidden at Pow Wows as well. On some reservations, events strictly for social dances (called “49’ers”) were held, and alcohol has turned some of these events into rowdy affairs, but these parties should not be confused with Pow Wows. The use of peyote was never allowed in Pow Wows. The use of peyote for religious ceremonies in the southwest will be discussed later.

53 http://www.native-languages.org/religion.htm Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 60

Musical Terms These are given in case you encounter a musical term you are unfamiliar with.

Beat A steady pulse.

Tempo The speed of the beat or pulse.

Meter The grouping of beats (most often into 3 or 4).

Accent Emphasis of some sounds that are louder than other sounds.

Rhythm The controlled movement and duration of sound over time.

Syncopation Rhythms containing emphasis on offbeats and/or upbeats.

Pitch The speed of a sound wave. The faster its speed; the higher the pitch. The slower the speed; the lower the pitch. This word is also called a note or a tone.

Melody The combination of pitch and rhythm.

Harmony Two or more different pitches sounding simultaneously.

Unison Two or more musical parts singing/playing the same exact melody.

Monophonic Music containing a single musical part singing and/or playing the same exact melody (in unison or octaves).

Homophonic Music with two or more musical parts moving together in harmony.

Polyphonic Music with two or more musical parts singing and/or playing different rhythms.

Heterophonic Two or more musical parts singing and/or playing the same or similar musical parts, but not exactly together.

Accompaniment A background instrumental and/or vocal musical part.

A cappella Singing unaccompanied by any instruments.

Overtones All pitches contain a series of other pitches within their sound that follow a mathematical formula from low to high. The fundamental is Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 61

the lowest note sounding, while the other higher pitches contained in that sound are called overtones. Overtones may or may not be noticeable or audible to an untrained ear, but the combination of the volume of each of the overtones is what makes a particular sound different from another. Each individual overtone combination, or spectrum, will influence how one identifies an instrument, or perceives tone quality.

Timbre A sound’s characteristics based on the overtones produced, and their volume.

Texture The thinness, thickness, or fullness of sound, which varies according to the number of variable sounds at any given moment.

Tone Quality An opinion as to how good, how poor, or how pleasing a sound is.

Intonation The accuracy of exactly matching one pitch to another at a level acceptable to the human ear. If one pitch is too high in relation to another, it is considered to be sharp. If too low, it is considered to be flat. If two pitches are out of tune, the ear hears the difference of the speed of two resulting sound waves. Sound waves are measured in hertz (revolutions per second). Notes that are three or more hertz apart will sound badly out of tune. Notes that are in harmony may also be out of tune as well, for any respective matching overtones will conflict with each other if one of the fundamental notes is out of tune. Non-musicians may take comfort in knowing that even someone with a "tin ear" can tell if two or more musicians are badly out of tune!

Technique The ability to execute dexterity on an instrument or voice.

Composition A musical work, or piece. It also refers to the process of creating or inventing a musical work. A shorter musical work is called a song or a tune.

Form The structure and organization of a piece.

Improvisation The spontaneous creation of music based on one or more of the following: melody, harmony, rhythm, form, texture, or random thought.

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Idiophone Instrument that produces sound from the substance of the instrument itself by being struck, shaken, scraped, rubbed or blown (the latter is quite rare),. Examples include bells, rattles, xylophones, , mbiras (thumb ), cymbals, singing bowls, and musical saws.

Membranophone - Any instrument that produces sound from tightly stretched membranes that are struck, plucked, rubbed, or sung into (setting the skin in vibration). This family includes all types of drums, and even the kazoo.

Aerophone Instrument that produces sound by using air as the primary vibrating means, such as brass, woodwinds, horns. The bullroarer is also an aerophone.

Chordophone Instrument that produces sound from a vibrating string stretched between two points; the string is set in motion by bowing, striking, or plucking. All keyboard and stringed instruments fit into this category.

Traditional Native American Musical Purpose and “Composition” All objects emit a sound or vibration of some sort. Soil, rocks, the whistling of planets sailing through the solar system, and even DNA cells create vibrational sound. The sounds of nature (animals, birds, fish, water, wind) have been imitated in music and dance since the beginning of humankind. The closeness of music to nature is quite evident in the traditional music of Native America, known for its soothing, healing, or energizing qualities.

Music has been one of the last areas of Native American culture to receive serious attention from scholars. In addition to the inability to preserve examples for study before Thomas A. Edison invented the recording machine in 1879, many found the music to be unattractive and "primitive" by Euro-American standards. In the 1890's, the Smithsonian Institution's Bureau of American Ethnology began to encourage active collecting of Indian music. Pioneer work in gathering, preserving and studying the music was done principally by women, notably Alice C. Fletcher, Frances Densmore, and Natalie Curtis, albeit from a very Eurocentric viewpoint. . .

To the average non-Indian ear, all Indian music sounds the same; the pervasive unison melody - much of it sung to vocables (syllables) over a recurrent drumbeat, gives the simple impression of 'chanting while beating a drum.' Closer examination, however, reveals distinct musicalal cultures on the North American continent, Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 63

different tribal styles, and, within a given tribe, a rich variety of styles specific to song genres.54

The original purpose of traditional Native American music was one of function more than entertainment. The great majority of songs are of spiritual significance or for specific ceremonial functions, but there are others for love, songs for a particular task, or songs for fun. In the days before the tremendous loss of life due to warfare and disease, there were songs for nearly every occasion imaginable. Many of these songs have been lost because keepers of those songs did not live long enough to pass them on. A good song is usually rated for its power in spiritual significance as opposed to its value in entertainment. There are some songs for entertainment, such as gambling, social dancing, games, lullabies, and to enhance storytelling.

A “composer” taking credit for creating a song was simply not a Native American concept. Ideas for songs were considered a direct message from the Great Spirit, deity spirit (such as one of the four directions) or ancestor spirits, often in the form of a dream. No one took credit for the composition, for it was a gift from the spirit world. That is why originators of traditional songs in past generations will forever remain anonymous. The originator of the song "owned" the song, but would pass it to others through oral tradition. Songs could often be traded for goods, or given to someone as a gift. Today, Native Americans may take “credit” for a song in recordings, but usually the ultimate “credit” goes beyond the human aspect.

The Role of Dance For the great majority of Native American music, dancing is an integral part of the entire event; the song would not be sung at all without the dancing. Dancing has been considered to be mainly a social function in Europe and the U.S., but the idea of dancing as a sacred act was generally not understood. At one time, dancing was a sacred and spiritual act in many Anglo cultures up until the middle ages, when the church began to consider dancing immoral. As the idea of religious dancing faded, folk dancing replaced it for purposes of entertainment.

In traditional Native American culture, music and dancing are used as a religious or functional purpose, and only in the last fifty years has the idea of social dancing become more popular in Native American culture. The high degree of sophistication Native American dance achieved before the banning of dancing by the U.S. government has been reduced to a small fraction. The popularity of Pow Wows in recent times has helped the revival of Native American dancing, but many of the traditional dances are either lost, or simply not done in public.

54 Vennum, Thomas, Jr. "Ojibway Music From Minnesota: Continuity and Change." St. Paul: the Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1989, p. 1. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 64

Traditional Musical Instruments As hunting bows were made some 50,000 years ago, it is only natural that musical bows were made at the same time. They could be played by stretching a string from one's mouth to the bow, and changing the tension and changing the shape of the mouth, a percussive sound would result. Except for these bows, chordophones (stringed instruments) were otherwise not used.

As soon as two sticks were hit together, the simple idiophone was made. By some 35,000 years ago, scrapers and rattles, (also idiophones) were being used. Idiophones decorated with red ochre date approximately 20,000 years ago, and indicate a probable sacred usage, while the first known pictograph of a musician dates back to 15,000 B.C.55

Flutes belong to the aerophone (wind instrument) family. Early flutes were made out of bone, and the oldest (found in Labrador, ) been radiocarbon dated back to 5600 B.C. The oldest flute in the US was found in East Texas:

Found in an excavation in East Texas, this flute would be blown from the side. With the hands cupped at the end the tone could be changed. It was made from the wing bone of a large bird. Diagnostic points found in the strata above the flute would date it from 4000 BC to 7000 BC.56

Another aerophone from early times is called a bullroarer, "a flat, elongated piece of bone or wood, attached at one end to a string that is swung over the head, lasso style, to produce a howl or a hum, depending on the instrument's shape and velocity"57

55 Hart, Mickey. Drums of the Americas, p. 70. 56 http://www.flutopedia.com/dev_flutes_northamerica.htm 57 Hart, p. 71. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 65

This instrument actually sounds like a bull roaring, or thunder in the distance, and is often decorated with lightning symbols.

Membranophones (drums) became an integral part of Native American music, and skin-covered drums can be traced back at least as far as 8,000 B.C.

The instruments used in traditional Native American music are the drums, rattles, and flutes. Strings were not used traditionally. The Apaches used a fiddle after the arrival of the Spaniards, and the hunting bow had some early use as a musical bow in California.

Vocals The voice is the most important “instrument” of all in Native American music. Most songs use vocals, which vary from solo voice to drum groups that number from just a few to a dozen or more. A few vocal songs are done unaccompanied (such as lullabies and children’s songs), but most are done with drums and/or rattles. Voices in combination with flutes did not occur in traditional music, as there is no need for two “melodic” instruments simultaneously. The voice is the most significant "instrument" in Native American songs because they carry the melody, ; and meaning of the song.

Lyrics can be in the traditional language of a particular tribe, but that is not that common, because the loss of indigenous languages since the Indian wars has been staggering. Only in the last few decades has there been a concentrated effort to preserve them, but it remains a struggle. While languages are not fully lost, many words to songs have been lost due to the tremendous loss of Native American lives in the past 500 years, coupled with the attempts of whites to eliminate Native American culture during the early twentieth century. To maintain the melody of the songs as they were, syllables were added to fill in places where traditional language might have been used in the past. These syllables known as “vocables”. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 66

Vocables vary considerably, as well as the combinations of sounds. The possibilities are endless, but here a few examples:

hey-ya-hey-ha-hey hi- ya-ha-ha-ya-ya ya-hee-ray, ya-hee-ray wey-oh-ha-ha-how

The hundreds of vocable combinations are usually stretched out for a longer time to match the musical phrases of what the original words or intent might have been, and they’re designed to be fairly easy to sing. Many songs consist entirely of vocables due to loss of words, but others are all vocables because many songs are sung by drum groups of mixed tribes, where a common language is not known. That allows drum groups to sing melodies together that could not otherwise understand each other. In summary, Native American vocal songs use either all original language, some original language mixed with vocables, or all vocables.

Although many songs have words, it is the melody rather than words or vocables of the tune that enable Native Americans to know what the song is. Most Native American songs in Pow Wows and social dances tend to have fewer words than songs from other cultures. Vocal melodies and styles tend to be based on the sounds that flutes make, coupled with sounds of nature.

Regarding intonation, Native American singers may seem "out of tune" to those not familiar with Native American singing. Much like Asian, African, and systems of tuning in India, the Native American concept of what is “in tune” differ considerably from the European system of equal temperament (all notes are an equal distance apart). A piano is an example of a European instrument where all notes are tuned equally apart from each other. This does not hold true in other cultures, including Native American songs, which didn’t happen to use a piano as a basis for their tonal concepts.

Opinions vary considerably as to what good intonation is. Since songs are passed down in the oral tradition, they are often learned exactly. Songs that offended European ears were rarely a result of poor musical skills or lack of "training", but represented tuning within a given tribal culture. Skilled singers controlled their pitch exactly where they wanted it every time the song is sung, as opposed to “poor” singing, which would be if they were not able to control their voice.

Good singers in the Native American culture are often considered good because of their positive energy first and foremost, and then the quality and power of one's voice. Most songs are sung forcefully, in full voice, with as much emotion as Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 67

possible. Songs that are very high in pitch are sung in full voice without falsetto. [falsetto is an artificially high and usually somewhat softer voice, often used in pop and soul singing]. Imitation of animals comes into play as well. After one Native American heard a concert by a famous soprano in , he stated to her through an interpreter "You have a beautiful voice. It sounds just like a coyote." This, to him, was the highest compliment possible.58

In the old days, only men sat at the drum to sing. In later times, women could stand in a circle around the drum and sing behind the men, but did not play the drum. At Pow Wows, a few all-female drum groups have emerged in recent years.

Songs were sung in unison or octaves, not in harmony. Today, two and even three- part harmony occurs occasionally, but not in traditional Native American music. For drum group songs, a chosen experienced singer adopts a leadership role. The leader will initiate call-response vocals, either in an "I-sing-you sing" format, or to begin each round, or “push-up” of a song. In the latter case, the leader will sing a short portion of the song lasting a few seconds, and than the rest of the group will sing along with the leader in unison until that portion of the song is finished. With each new push-up, the leader will begin alone, and then the group will join in a few seconds later.

Written notation was never used except in some woodland tribes where symbols were engraved in birch bark to assist with memorization. Musicologists who have attempted to adapt Native American traditional songs to the European system of notation have encountered difficulty because of the different pitch and tuning concepts, and because written notation was never intended. Notes could only be indicated as to the sharpness and flatness to a given note on the piano, which really is not accurate, as the piano never existed in traditional Native America. Written transcriptions will rarely help one learn Native American songs, for there are qualities that cannot be notated and can only be learned by the repeated, constant process of hearing Indians sing - through oral tradition.

The Drum Drums are usually made out of wood or clay with an animal hide stretched out across the top. Animal skins used are typically calf, sheep, moose, caribou, and in the past - buffalo. Smaller animals may be used for smaller drums. Skins are tuned by being held before a fire to tighten them, or dampened to make the skin looser. Clay drums can be partially filled with water before the hide is put on, giving a less hollow and more resonant sound, if not overfilled. Otherwise, the water is to keep the head wet. Old water drums were made of hollowed logs with a plug or disk in

58 Laubin, 99. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 68

the bottom to hold water, or, water drums were made out of kegs, with tanned buckskin heads that were played in a tilted manner for resonance.59 The tribes of the east and woodlands have used water drums, as the wet rawhide heads do well in damp climates. If a is played near a fire, the pitch will rise until the head is tilted, splashing the head with the water in the drum and lowering the pitch again. Many drums will have a small hole somewhere in the shell to release air pressure and avoid splitting the heads, but most of the long drums of the southwest do not have them.60

Pow Wow Drum

Sizes range from large ones used at Pow Wows, to small hand drums that can be easily carried. Pow Wow Drums usually have legs (often decorated with feathers) to keep the drums off of the ground at all times. Some modern drums may contain two heads, one on the top and one on the bottom. Other less traditional groups will use a standard bass drum and leave it on the ground. Most of the smaller hand drums have two heads, and a few by medicine men in the northwest coast have snares on one side in the manner of a tambourine. Drums can be highly decorative,

59 Laubin, 102. 60 Laubin, 107. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 69

with symbols representing aspects of spirituality, nature, or family history. In California and the Pacific Northwest, foot drums are used, which may be a plank over a pit in the floor.61

Drums are struck with wooden beaters or sticks that are usually partially wrapped with animal skin, fur, or cloth. Grapevine and Hazelwood is frequently used. Symbolic designs are common on the beaters as well. The beaters are important because hand drumming is not a traditional Native American characteristic.

Drums are considered sacred and are treated with the utmost respect and reverence. Often, drums are treated as people, and presented with gifts of tobacco. In Pow Wows, tobacco is scattered on the drums themselves before they are played. Many drummers belong to drum societies, which are a Woodlands form of the Grass Dance societies on the northern plains.62

The maker of a drum usually has a distinct purpose and reason for making a particular drum. It is made with the belief that the will of the Great Spirit is being done, and that the drum will have a spirit of its own that must be brought out through the drum beats and the music that surrounds the drum. Only selected people can make or own a drum. In most cases, a special "keeper of the drum" is appointed to take care of the drum at all times. Because of the sacredness of the drums, it is not proper to use the term "tom-tom", for Native Americans consider this word disrespectful.63

Drum Construction The construction of the drum begins with the frame, usually a wooden washtub, or old barrels. Drums average about 24 inches at the top and slope down to about 22 inches at the bottom, with about 13 inches between the heads. At some point before the drum is complete, four looped straps are attached about one-third of the way down the outside of the frame. The straps are used to suspend the drum from four support stakes to hang freely. Before heads are put on the drums, one or two hawk bells are placed on the inside diameter of the frame with a piece of twine, representing the "heart" of the drum which signifies the essential symbol of life. As the drum is beaten, the sound of the bell signals that the Great Spirit is listening to their songs.

Drum heads are usually cow or moose hide as opposed to deer hide, which is not thick enough to endure the tension placed on the head. The hides are stretched

61 Harold E. Driver. Indians of North America, 2nd ed. revised, , University of Chicago Press, 1967, 198. 62 Vennum, p. 7. 63 Laubin, 107. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 70

(hair side out) over the frames. Hides must be gotten before they are salted, or they may not be used. Once the drum heads are attached, the drum is hung for a week or so to dry indoors. The first item put on the drum is a skirt, a rectangular cloth surrounding the drum. When the drum is hung, the skirt hangs down from the top to a few inches below its bottom. The belt, made by women, is attached over the skirt, surrounding the drum at its top head. The top and bottom edges of the belts are usually bordered with silk and are often fully beaded. Tabs are decorated with symbols, and a thin strip of fur surrounds the top of the frame.

Ponca singer Ed Littlecook, in white hat, leads singers in a victory song during a summer dance at White Eagle, Okla. Photo by JoKAY Dowell.64

Pulse, Meter, and Rhythms Because of their volume, the drums are usually the most noticed instrument in traditional Native American music. The drum beats represent the heartbeat of Mother Earth, and are deliberately kept very simple because their function is to provide a pulse, not a rhythm. The great majority of songs are in duple meter, with a few songs in triple meter. In duple meter songs, drums provide either a steady beat, or, in cases of some songs where the beat is not steady (in some eastern and southwestern tribes) the drum beats follow the syllables of the words, so meter varies constantly between duple and triple. In the songs with steady beats, especially in Pow Wows, some drum beats are accented according to the words of a song, or according to what type of song is being sung. Specific honor songs (such as

64 http://www.rockom.net/articles/tag/drum/

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veterans’ songs) contain “honor beats”, which are strong accents placed at specific parts of the song, either every time through or every other time through the song. The main thing to understand is, accents of drumbeats are not done randomly, but are intentional.

Rhythmic Relationships of Drums and Vocals The rhythmic relationships between drums and vocals vary according to tribal custom. With tribes in the east and southwest, vocals and drums tend to be in the the same tempo and are rhythmically in sync with each other. The drumbeats go right along with the vocal lyrics, which may shift meters according to the words.

In contrast, the northern plains and woodland tribes set the drumbeats and then begin the vocals, which often are "out of sync" with the drums. The voices may or may not be exactly the same tempo as the drums, but both proceed at a steady pulse. Sometimes the voices begin “between drum beats” and stay that way a while, and then perhaps meander toward being in sync with the vocals later, or vice versa. The drums start, and the lead singer of the drum group begins when it feels right, whether or not they are right on the beat or in-between the drum beats. In some cases the voices can even sound like a triple meter superimposed on a duple meter of the drums. This can be hard for the unaccustomed listener to grasp at first, but it’s really not that hard to follow. Since the function of the drum is to be a heart beat, which governs the bodily movements, it is no big deal for many northern tribes to sing another tempo or meter at the same time with the “heartbeat”.

Rattles/Shakers/Bells A gourd is cleaned out and dried, and the seeds or pebbles are placed back inside and the gourd is sealed up so that when shaken, a rattling of the seeds occurs. Rattles can be made out of other materials as well, such as wood, snapping turtle shells, hickory bark, cow horns, or deer hooves.

Typically a rattle is used for ceremony, dancing, or gourd songs. Rattles were used in religious ceremonies to the good spirits for healing or prayer. Native Americans consider the rattle to be an instrument of great power. Once a rattle is used for a ceremony, it is usually kept for that purpose, but there may be exceptions to that in some tribes.

When serving a musical function, rattles are shaken to accompany a drum beat (always with the same rhythm that the drum is playing). Contrary to Caribbean music where rattles or shakers are used in pairs, Native Americans traditionally use a single rattle by shaking the arm and/or wrist up and down in a vertical motion. Dancers also use seeds, hawk bells, tin bells, or pieces of elk, deer, or buffalo hoof attached to small turtle or terrapin shells on the legs or arms of men or women Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 72

wearing traditional outfits. When the dancer dances, an impressive, rhythmic rattling is present. Some pieces are hung in clusters to make a rattling sound by themselves.65 Bells can be dated back to Columbus, who gave hawk bells to the Indians of the on his first visit. 66 Nothing can capture the sound of a Pow Wow Drum Group being accompanied by the swishing sound of hundreds of dancers with either seeds or bells attached in the circle!

The Bird Singers of the Kumeyaay Nation of California show a nice variety of rattles in this song.67

Rasps made out of notched sticks fall under the rattle category and are not common, but are used at the Ute Bear Ceremony.

Organization and Structure Melody, rhythm, and formal structure are quite varied according to tribal custom. Contrary to biased early writings by whites, Native American songs do contain distinct melodies, organized rhythms, and a definite formal structure – all of the same ingredients as "civilized" music. So how are Native American songs put together?

Most Native American songs are between three and five minutes long. Most songs are usually sung through an average of four times, with some flexibility according to

65 Laubin, 108. 66 Laubin, 29. 67 http://www.kumeyaay.info/pow_wow.html?http%3A//www.kumeyaay.info/pow_wow/gourdrattles.htm

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the event, and according to whether the song is "feeling good” or not. Ceremonial songs must be sung absolutely correctly while other songs may allow for more freedom of expression, particularly from a drum group leader. As far as when a song is to stop in the northern plains style, it is dependent upon whether the drum group leader begins to sing the first part of the song again. If he does not, it is usually the last time through the song. Sometimes drummers will hit several very soft beats in a row right before the end of a song as a cue to the drummers and dancers that the song is going to stop precisely at the end of the round, or pushup. To dance even one step or play one beat beyond the end of the song is an embarrassing error of protocol.

Flutes and other Aerophones

68 Flutes are often made out of wood, cane, bone (such as the tibia of a deer), or clay that is dried and cut into various lengths. Many flutes are made of cedar, as it produces a pure and resonant sound. Some flutes are also made of sumac. Holes are cut into the top of the flute at specific points for the fingers to cover, and a somewhat larger hole is drilled for the player to blow into. As for all acoustic instruments, the larger the flute, the lower the overall sound is. The player blows into the end of the flute, and not across as in the metal flute of the Western band and orchestra tradition. The number of holes drilled depends on the number of notes desired, and whether the function of the flute is for ceremonies or love songs. Ceremonial or functional flutes usually have one to four holes, and flutes serving a musical function have five or six.

68 http://www.missiondelrey.com/use-native-american-flutes-in-powwows-and-indian- ceremonies.html

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The cedar flute is made out of two sections of cedar joined to form a hollow cylinder about eighteen inches long and one and ¼ inches in diameter. When iron became available, the flute was then fashioned from a single piece of cedar hollowed out by burning it with a hot iron rod. A solid dam was left near the top, and a rectangular opening was cut on either side, and over this a wooden pitch control was fitted. Some flutes are carved in animal shapes such as birds, or may be decorated with elaborate symbols or pictures. Flutes that produce a strong tremolo, or warble are preferred. The nose flute, blown with the nose, existed in California, and its Polynesian origin may further support theories of ancient oceanic crossings. Because of the variable shapes, sizes, materials, and distance between holes, it is nearly impossible to find two flutes that sound exactly alike.

The main traditional use for flutes in the Native American culture has been for love songs, which were played by young men who wished to court a particular young woman. The playing of a flute at dusk was a general custom in all tribes - young boys would play them at the bashful age, and young men played them when really in love. The songs played were inspired by the player, whose beautiful melodies were designed to capture the attention, and hopefully the heart of the young woman so desired. If the woman took fancy to the song, she might come over to where the man was playing, or perhaps agree to meet him at a designated place sometime in the near future. If the maiden was not interested, she would not respond, leaving the heartbroken brave to play into the night unanswered. The love songs often were repeated many nights, until the man either won over his woman, or abandoned his courtship. Certain melodies could also convey specific messages, such as, "meet me at the creek tonight" or, "someone is watching you".

Traditional flute repertoire was composed of transcriptions of vocal love songs. Flute melodies were either unchanged versions of the vocal song, or the melody was sketched out according to the capability of the instrument. Melodies were ornamented simply, and, when repeated, altered by rhythmic and melodic changes. The melodies of the typically have an improvised quality, and although some parts may be repeated, the player usually improvises around one or two melodic ideas throughout a certain song. A second performance of the same song would most likely be similar, but not exactly like the first rendition. The melody would be much the same between the two versions, but the improvised portions would contain some differences.

Native American flutes are traditionally played without accompaniment in the U.S. and Canada. Flutes have also been used for official occasions and in sacred Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 75

ceremonies. Hernando Soto encountered chiefs and other high-ranking officials in Florida playing cane flutes as a sign of peace and goodwill on greeting him.69

Flutes made for ceremonies contain 1-4 holes to obtain a few notes. Some flutes are also played to sound like birds or other creatures of nature. Ocarinas (flutes made of clay) are circular in shape, and are played with the palms of the hands facing each other. Ocarinas produced simple melodies that were either for ceremonies, or functioned as a signal or message. Ocarinas are more commonly used in the southwest, and by Indians in Mexico.

8 hole Peruvian Inca pottery ocarina from Peru70

The conch shell trumpet was known not only in Mexico but along the gulf and southeastern seaboard, and was used as far north as the Iroquois to call a meeting of council.71

69 Driver, 205. 70 http://www.hobgoblin.co.uk/local/GR2712-p-Atlas-Inca-Ocarina-from--Page.htm 71 Laubin, 110. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 76

The tradition of using a conch shell trumpet is maintained in parts of Mexico. In Teopaxco, Oaxaca, the town police officer is responsible to blow the conch shell, which can be heard up to three kilometers away. When they hear the sound, the people begin to come to the municipal government hall for meetings or important announcements.72

Wilson Roberts, (Wapanueták), a Melkwaki of Tama, Iowa, was a skillful imitator of bird calls. He played a six holed flute, knew many ceremonial and social songs as a vocalist, and did much artistic bead work. He passed away in 1952.73 Another performer of the Native American flute that has done much to popularize this idiom is R. Carlos Nakai, of Navajo-Ute heritage. While using many traditional songs, Nakai also uses contemporary recording techniques to enhance variety.

The role of the Native American flute has undergone many changes since the late 19th century. Instead of amorous renditions of vocal love songs, flute repertoire has expanded and can refer to any topic or emotional feeling. A lot of songs are about the environment; the state of Mother Earth. Flute players have become popular entertainers at ethnic music festivals, intertribal Pow Wows, and public concerts. Many Native American men found artistic expression, economic opportunities, and recognition through flute playing. With strong consumer demand, recording companies specializing in Native American music began to produce and distribute recordings of flute music. Today, men and women from

72 http://www.sil.org/mexico/nahuatl/noaxaca/00i-NahuatlNorteOaxaca-nhy.htm

73 Kurath, Gertrude, annotator. Songs and Dances of the Great Lakes Indians - liner notes. P. 4. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 77

tribes throughout North America play and compose for the flute. In the last two decades, musicians have combined the flute with orchestral and electronic sounds.

Whistles are usually made out of bone, bird legs, reeds, deer tibia, and wood. Whistles are used in ceremonies according to what type of bird or animal the bone belongs to. The eagle bone whistle, for example, is made from the of eagle wings, and is used in sweat ceremonies, as a signal for battle, or in special honor dances by a pipe carrier/honored elder. Eagles are never hunted, killed, or eaten, and any part of an eagle used (feathers or bones) come from a bird that is deceased from natural causes.

Unity and Diversity of Tribal Nations With thousands of tribal nations and musical traditions to choose from, we’ll focus on the traditional music some of the largest nations; the Ojibwe, Sioux, Cherokee, Hopi, Navajo, and Apache, which will allow us to look at the unity and diversity of ideas that exist within and between tribal nations. Because contemporary Native American music blends many tribal traditions along with today’s technology, it will have its own section.

With the staggering loss of Indian population, and attempts to stamp out Native culture over several hundred years, differences exist not only between non-native and native scholars but between native interpretations as well. With spellings, definitions and information, one can find many variances, so the information given here is merely one good-hearted attempt to assist the reader with understanding how Native American music is put together.

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The Northern Pow Wow

Pow Wow came from the Narragansett word powwaw, meaning shaman74 or medicine man, but today we come to think of it as a gathering, or a celebration.

The growth of reservations gave rise to the modern Pow Wow, which evolved from the Grass Dance Societies that formed during the early 1800's. Through dance, the warriors re-enacted their brave deeds for members of the tribe to witness. After the Indian wars, tribal customs and religions were outlawed, but the Grass Dance was one of the few celebrations allowed. The Grass Dance became an opportunity to maintain some of the earlier tribal customs that were vanishing. As other communities and tribes were invited to these celebrations, rights of ownership of sacred items necessary to the Grass Dance were formally transferred from one tribe to another. "Inter-tribalism" began to emerge with the sharing of these songs and dances. Tribal differences were put aside to celebrate in unison. Trappers and native designers were welcome to set up their ware for the dancers wanting to purchase material and accessories to design their regalia; as it is a great pride to design your own outfit. Gift-giving and generosity were integral aspects of these early festivities, and still are today.

Contrary to earlier depictions from whites, Pow Wows are not "wild savages" yelling and screaming around a "bonfire", nor is it a pagan celebration. It is a planned social event for feasting, drumming and dancing. These traditional gatherings are alcohol and drug free. Pow Wows are a place to meet old friends and make new ones; to award and recognize deserving individuals, and to give and receive gifts. As always, elders and veterans are honored many times during the event.

74 http://www.crystalinks.com/powwow.html Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 79

Today, Pow Wows are either traditional or competitive. Traditional Pow Wows are somewhat like the old days, where the reason for gathering was to celebrate and dance in the sacred circle. Competitive Pow Wows are also a celebration open to the public, but is also for dancers to show their skills, win cash prizes. Crowds gather to enjoy the festivities and watch the dancers compete.

Pow Wows typically run from one to three days. Most are done on a weekend or special holiday, such as July 4th. A series of dances are done for about two to three hours, and usually run Friday nights, Saturday afternoons, Saturday nights, and Sunday afternoons. Most one-day Pow Wows work best on Saturdays, allowing for people who work to get to the destination and get back in time for Monday jobs.

Originally, there were no "spectators" at a Pow Wow. Everyone was to participate, even if one was merely lending their presence. The idea remains that everyone has a place in the circle. When the announcer calls for an "intertribal dance", everyone is welcome to dance in the circle, and need not be in Native American traditional dress. Street clothing is fine, but modesty is expected. Men must wear shirts, bathing suits are not allowed for either sex, and scanty or “sexy” clothing is not allowed if one wishes to dance in the circle.

While not used today, in the old days, hand drums and log poles were often used to provide a beat. Tribes were constantly traveling to follow the seasonal migration, making large drums hard to care for and transport. Hand drums were still beaten with small sticks but held by hand, usually dangles by a leather string so the small drumhead can resonate. Songs were passed down from generation to generation; some having special words that belonged to a certain tribe or nation, some containing all vocables, and others a mixture of language and vocables. Each song at a Pow Wow is sung for a specific type of dance style.

The Pow Wow Committee Planning for an annual community Pow Wow generally begins nearly a year in advance of the event by a Pow Wow committee. If a Pow Wow has a sponsor, such as a tribe, college, or organization, many or all members of the committee may come from that group. The committee is responsible to recruit and hire the head staff, publicize the Pow Wow, secure a location, provide facilities and safety, and recruit vendors who pay for the right to set up and sell at the Pow Wow.

The Spiritual Advisor First and most importantly, the Pow Wow committee selects a spiritual advisor, who will be very influential in helping the committee determine the emcee or announcer, arena director, head drum group, invited drum groups, male and female head Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 80

dancers, and (for traditional Pow Wows) the keeper(s) of the sacred fire, which is lit usually a day or two before the Pow Wow begins and remains burning until the Pow Wow is over. Because of the responsibilities involved for a major annual Pow Wow, it is not uncommon to have a different spiritual advisor each year, which means that the and style of the entire Pow Wow will vary depending on the decisions, leadership, and ethics of the spiritual advisor. Naturally, this person is one who is very knowledgeable about the culture, and is nearly always a pipe carrier, medicine man, or both.

The Head Staff The head staff members of a Pow Wow are the people who run the event on the day or days it actually occurs. They are generally hired by the Pow Wow committee several months in advance, as the quality of the head staff can have an impact on how smoothly the event goes, and can boost or deter attendance.

The MC The first head staff member is the master of ceremonies, or MC, who is the voice of the Pow Wow. It is his job to keep the singers, dancers, and general public informed as to what is happening at all times. The MC sets the schedule of events, and maintains the order of when each drum group gets to sing. The MC is also responsible for keeping public interest in-between songs, often with “bad” jokes. The MC often runs any raffles or other contests that happen during the Pow Wow.

The Arena Director The arena director is the man in charge during the Pow Wow, and the rest of the head staff reports to him. Sometimes the arena director is referred to as the whip man, but other times the whip man is the arena director's assistant. Smaller Pow Wows may not need a whip man. The arena director is responsible for making sure enough dancers are participating in the circle during the Pow Wow and that the drums know what songs to sing in the proper order. For contest Pow Wows, the arena director is ultimately responsible for providing judges, though he often has another assistant who is the head judge. The arena director is also responsible for organizing any special dances or ceremonies that may be required during the Pow Wow, such as when a dancer is brought out in outfit for the first time, or, which specific actions are required if an eagle feather is dropped.

The Head Dancers The head dancers consist of the Head Male Dancer and the Head Female Dancer, and often Head Teen Dancers, Head Little Boy and Girl Dancers, Head Golden Age Dancers, and a Head Gourd Dancer if the Pow Wow will be having gourd dancing (done in the south). The head dancers are responsible for leading the other dancers during a song, and often dancers will not enter the arena unless the head Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 81

dancers are already out dancing. The head dancers also lead the other dancers in the grand entry that opens a Pow Wow.

The Head Veteran The Head Veteran is used more often in Eastern Pow Wows, and is chosen for bravery in combat and experience with protocol. Duties vary from an advisory position to assisting dancers in the arena.

Physical Set up The physical set up of the Pow Wow is arranged in a circle, and in large, concentric circles whenever possible. The dance arena is the center-most circle where the drums and dancers are. In some outdoor Pow Wows (if space allows) the drums are located in the center of the grounds and are sheltered by a circular structure called a Drum Arbor, with one function being to shelter the drums and singers in case of rain. In the middle are four upright poles, three of which are even in height. In northern Pow Wows, the high one is in the East, and the others are in the North, West, and South. All of the roof beams and outside uprights are multiples of four. The number four signifys the four directions, the four winds and the four seasons. Above the drum arbor are four sacred colors seen as a flag or as streamers of red, white, black, and yellow. These signify the four races of mankind. Flying together, they signify coming together to share in peace and harmony and accepting the kinship and unity of all creatures as created by the Great Spirit, with understanding and acknowledgment.75 With other large outdoor or indoor Pow Wows, there may not be a drum arbor, usually due to space constraints. Drum groups may often be to the side of the large dance circle when there are a very large number of dancers in a smaller space.

Just outside the dance arena is another circle consisting of the MC's table, drum groups, and sitting areas for dancers and their families. At outdoor Pow Wows, this circle is often covered by either a committee built arbor, or each group will provide their own sun shade. Beyond these two circles for participants is a circular area for spectators. Sometimes bleachers or even arena seating is available, but other times it’s “bring your own chairs”. For indoor Pow Wows, seating is almost always provided. Beyond the seating is the open circular walkway which provides access to the circle of concessions. In the vendor’s circle one can buy Native American clothing, art, crafts, or food. Many items are often handmade by the vendors themselves. The outer-most circle is the camping area and parking lots.

75 Much of the information on pp. 45- 53 is taken from the Whitewater, Wisconsin, Mounds Pow Wow Booklet, 1996. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 82

The Drum Group A Pow Wow simply does not exist without live drum groups. The Host Drum is considered to be the exemplary group of the Pow Wow. At an Intertribal Pow Wow two or more drum groups are hired to be the host drums - often a Host Northern Drum and a Host Southern Drum. Each drum has a lead singer who runs his drum and leads the songs. Host drums are responsible for starting the Pow Wow with the grand entry song, and usually will do the flag song or veteran’s song. At the end of a Pow Wow they will sing the closing flag song, retreat song, or closing song. If a Pow Wow has gourd dancing, the Southern Host Drum is often the drum that sings all the gourd songs, though another drum can perform them. The host drums are often called upon to sing special songs during the Pow Wow. Some famous host drums include Black Lodge Singers, Cozad Singers, Lakota Thunder, Northern , Red Bull Singers, Mandaree, Southern Thunder, The Boyz, Yellowhammer, and Zotigh.76

The Role of the Drum Some drums are hand made by the drum keeper, while others are donated to drum groups. Contemporary bass drums can be purchased, renovated, and even blessed, just as the traditional drums are. The drum is more than just a to those who own and play it, for it has its own life. Drum group members usually go through ceremonies and have their drums blessed and named, as the drum is regarded as a man with its own powerful spirit. Gifts are made to the drum and some drums have their own sacred medicine pipes. Depending on the tribal nation, the drum symbolizes the heartbeat of Mother Earth, or the powerful medicine of thunder.

The drum must always be treated as sacred. Nothing is ever set on a drum, nor does anyone reach across it. Many drums have their own song, which is frequently sung as a warm up at the beginning of the Pow Wow celebration. The beat of the drum is played like a heartbeat, starting slowly and then beating a little more quickly as the singers get further into the song. The drumsticks connect the singers to the power of the drum as they sing. There are many varying tempos of drumbeats played, according to the type of song desired. Drumbeats are usually in duple meter (even pattern, steady pulse), with a few songs in triple meter, signified by a long-short-long-short pattern (uneven pattern, steady pulse). Drumbeats must be in perfect time, and each drummer must hit the drum simultaneously for a crisp drumbeat that is not sloppy.

76 http://www.crystalinks.com/powwow.html Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 83

Northern Pow Wow Songs Traditional Native American songs follow a common form, or structure. This holds true for Northern Pow Wow songs, whether for a Grand Entry, a specific dance category, honor dance, or a . The lead singer selects the song to be sung. He may hit the drum once to let the dancers and other singers know the song is about to begin. Then, the drum beats begin first for a few seconds until the lead singer comes in alone, and sings a phrase of a tune called a "lead". Immediately, the rest of the group repeats the lead (called the "second"). Next, all of the singers sing the melody (first part), and repetition of the melody (second part) together. One time through the song is called a "push up," so if the announcer asks a drum group for four push-ups, they will sing the grouping of lead, second, first part, and second part a total of four times.

Some songs are sung in the traditional language, some contain vocables only, and others contain both words and vocables. Because many do not even speak their native language, the language songs are fewer and definitely more difficult. At Pow Wows, songs that are in only vocables make it easier for members of other drum groups to join in and learn songs. Songs that contain both vocables and language usually contain a statement in the original language that is then stretched out into a longer series of vocables. The same happens for a second or subsequent statement. Most songs contain no more than four sentences drawn out into vocables, and that makes it easier for intertribal drum groups.

Drum group members often come from different tribes within the same group, all with a different language and customs. The custom adopted for any given song or set of songs depends on the particular ceremony or Pow Wow to be attended. In this way, Native American drum groups honor the customs of the area they are in – following the age-old saying “When in Rome, do as the Romans do.”

Native American songs do not fit into a European-based musical notation very well, despite attempts by well-meaning researchers to make it fit. First of all, Native American vocal singing evolved separately from the European twelve-tone scale (as found on the piano, for instance). Notes that sound good to Native American singers naturally do not conform to the notes of a piano. And how could they? The piano did not exist in the Americas when traditional Native American music began. To the white settlers, the music sounded wild and “out-of-tune”. Upon further investigation (one of my favorite catch phrases!) we discover that the “out-of-tune- ness” in these songs was consistent, based on a deliberate, exact sense of where they wanted that pitch, and not based on perceived vocal inadequacies as would occur in poor or inexperienced singers.

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Some songs have been passed down via oral tradition for literally hundreds of years. Many pre-reservation songs have been put aside in favor of the flood of new songs being composed. Some singing groups sing nothing but their own songs, and others borrow songs in addition to performing their own. Nowadays, songs are tape recorded and learned by ear. It’s not uncommon to see one drum group come over to another and (with permission), record a song with the intent to learn it. Trading songs between drum groups is common.

In the Northern Plains, the first parts of the song are sung very high in full voice, and the melody gains energy and rhythm as the voice descends. The volume and quality of the sound is produced at the back of the open mouth and with the throat muscles. Women stand (or occasionally sit) behind the seated drum group, and sing an octave higher than the men, joining in with the men once the leader is finished with the “lead”.

The Grand Entry The first main dance of nearly all Pow Wows is called the Grand Entry, during which all the dancers line up by dance style and age. As the lead host drum group sings a special song, the dancers enter into the dance circle. Upon entering the circle, thoughts of ill will, hatred or jealousy toward others must be purged from one’s heart and mind, for such thoughts will taint the sacred circle and it must remain pure. To see all the dancers come into the circle, exhibiting their regalia and dancing styles, is a sight to behold.

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Afternoon Grand Entry at the Gathering of Nations Pow Wow, Albuquerque, NM77

All registered dancers are required to take part in the Grand Entry. First the eagle staff is carried into the circle, followed by the American, Canadian, state, and tribal flags. Proper protocol is to stand when these flags appear for all who are able to. If any other nations are represented, those flags will be included as well.

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Eagle Staff Carriers at the Alberta, Canada Pow Wow78

The order of the dancers varies slightly in Pow Wows, so a “typical” order of the Grand Entry is given here:

Eagle Staff and Flag Carriers (always a veteran) Head Dancers Pow Wow Representatives (royalty) Men's Traditional Dancers Men's Grass Dancers Men's Fancy Dancers Women's Traditional Dancers Women's Fancy Shawl Dancers Women's Jingle Dress Dancers Junior Boys Traditional Dancers Junior Boys Grass Dancers Junior Boys Fancy Dancers Junior Girls Traditional Dancers Junior Girls Fancy Shawl Dancers Junior Girls Jingle Dress Dancers Little Boys Traditional Dancers Little Boys Fancy Dancers Little Girls Traditional Dancers Little Girls Fancy Shawl Dancers

78 http://www.pbase.com/poundstone/pow_wow

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Men enter the circle before women in the Grand Entry because they are the providers and protectors of the nation. The Ojibwe dancers dance to the Grand * Entry Song sun-wise, clockwise around the drum arbor , proudly showing their outfits and dancing their particular steps according to the type of dancer they are. Please know that the term "costume" is not proper. A costume is worn by someone who dresses as something they are not, such as a disguise for Halloween. Native Americans are dressing as who they are, and portray exactly what they are all about. The best terms to use are “outfits”, “traditional dress”, or “regalia”.

How long the Grand Entry Song lasts depends on how many dancers there are. The Host Drum Group will lead off, but to avoid too long of a single song, the drum beats keep going, and a new song is "handed off" from one drum group to another. In large Pow Wows, quite a few songs will be needed to get all of the dancers in the circle. At the huge Pow Wows, grand entries can take over an hour! When the Grand Entry Song is nearly over, all dancers turn to face the arbor (if there is one) until the song ends.

Invocation, Flag Songs, Veterans and Sneak Up Dances Next, there is an invocation said by a selected respected member of the tribal nation hosting the Pow Wow. Whenever possible, the prayer is said in the native language of the host tribe, and then (usually) repeated in English. Pow Wow etiquette nearly always request that all recording devices and cameras be turned off for the invocation and the Flag Song. The Flag Song is done by a chosen drum group, and all of the dancers stand still out of respect for the flags. I have heard dancers admonished by the emcee if they dance in place during the Flag Song, but again, customs vary from place to place. Flag Songs are usually somewhat slower and more subdued than Grand Entry Songs. After the Flag Song, recording devices are allowed, but it all depends on the individuals running the Pow Wow. Next, the eagle staff carrier is introduced and the other flag carriers (elders who are veterans) are introduced, for it is a great honor to carry a flag at a Pow Wow.

At traditional Pow Wows, some drum groups and dancers do not want to be photographed because of the sacredness of drums or of objects worn or carried into the circle. Others will not mind, but it is always polite to ask first before snapping!

The next song done in a Pow Wow is usually the Veterans (or Victory) Song. The respect shown to veterans is an integral part of the Native American culture, a

* Some tribes (such as Oneida) dance counter-clockwise around the circle. It is proper to dance in the direction of the host tribe of the Pow Wow. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 88

tradition from times when the welfare of a village depended on the fighting men. To be a warrior was a man's purpose in life and the best death a man could have was to fall defending the tribe. To Native Americans, the good of all outweighed the good of just one person, so veterans were honored because they were willing to give their lives for others. In traditional Pow Wows during the Veterans Song, the veterans in outfit begin the dance and usually go once around the circle, and then the announcer will ask all veterans to join in (whether in regalia or not) and will often invite anyone who has a veteran in their family to join in the circle as well. Protocol on these varies from allowing anyone to dance with the veterans to having just those who were in veterans in regalia to dance. It’s always best to pay attention to the emcee for instructions!

Like the Grand Entry, Veteran’s Songs are honor songs, and near the end of the Veterans Song, dancers turn and face the drum arbor if one has been built. After the song, the flags are either tied to the pole in the center of the arbor or brought to the announcer's stand.

Honor songs can be intertribal songs, or not. When an honor song is being done, such as the Grand Entry, Veteran's Song, and others, the emcee will instruct everyone (who is able) to stand and remove their caps or hats, unless wearing an eagle feather. Additional special honor songs can be requested to honor someone. Perhaps a family would request an honor song for a son returned from a war, or in memory of a deceased relative. Honor songs can be made for almost any occasion. In some traditions, people with an Indian name have their own songs and those songs are sung if the person is to be honored. In other instances there are "generic" honor songs for people without their own specific honor song.

A request to have an honor song for someone should be made before the Pow Wow, but that is not always possible. Anyone wanting an honor song done should go to the announcer's stand with the request. Someone from the Pow Wow committee works with the arena director to decide when the song would be performed, and by which drum. If a drum is present from the honored person's locale, or if they have a favorite drum, that drum could be requested to perform the song. It is customary for the person requesting the song to gift the drum for performing the song. Special honor songs can go right after a Veteran’s Song, but can also come at any time during a Pow Wow deemed appropriate by the Head Staff, Pow Wow committee, Spiritual advisor, or drum group(s).

The Sneak Up Dance is often done after the Veteran's song after a Grand Entry, and before the Intertribal Dances. The Sneak Up Dance features an indefinite series of (non-rhythmic) drum rolls in the first half of a push-up. During this part the dancers shake their bells and make gestures of looking for the enemy, or animal Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 89

to be hunted for food. On the second part of the push-up, fast, rhythmic pulses begin, and the dancers "sneak up" on their prey, advancing toward the center and stopping on the last beat of the push-up. Then, they walk back to the perimeter for the next push-up. The fourth push-up, or rendition, doesn't end as the first three do, but continues with two or three straight fast beat ("Omaha") renditions so the song is actually sung six or seven times in all.79

After the Sneak Up Dance, traditional Pow Wows are dominated by intertribals, where everyone is welcome to dance, regardless of whether in traditional garb, or whether they have Native American origins. The whole purpose of Pow Wows is to share the culture in a welcoming, inclusive manner. Just getting into the circle with the dancers and walking in a respectful way is fine for those who feel unsure of their dancing abilities. Wheelchair participants and people with any illnesses or disabilities are especially welcome into the circle, for the dancing is a form of praying for many, and the sacredness of the circle is believed to have healing qualities.

To simplify our study of Pow Wows, we will focus on two very large northern nations; the Ojibwe and the Sioux.

The Ojibwe Nation The Ojibwe (a.k.a. Ojibway, Ojibwa) people were called Chippewa by the whites. The latter Anglicized term has fallen out of favor these days. In fact, the Ojibwe call themselves the Anishinaabe, meaning “original people”, or another translation breaks the name down to "from-whence-man-lowered-to-the-earth". The Anishinaabe way of life was given to them by Gitchi-Manido, or Great Spirit. The name Anishinaabe is used also to refer to all Native Americans on Turtle Island (the U.S.). The origin of the term “Ojibwe” is uncertain:

Two distinct meanings have been generally attributed to the origin of the word. One theory has it translating from the Ojibway word for "puckered up," referring to the puckered style of their moccasins. The other theory suggests that the translation stems from the early history of warfare between the Anishinabe and their enemies such as the Eastern Dakota. The Ojibway allegedly had a reputation for roasting their enemy captives until they "puckered up."80

The traditionalist view is that the word "Indian" is a post-Columbus term given by an explorer who represented tragedy and bloodshed, so they reject any association with the name that Columbus gave them. Technically, a "Native American" is anyone

79 http://www.cradleboard.org/curriculum/powwow/supplements/powwow/sneak.html 80 http://www.turtle-island.com/native/the-ojibway-story.html

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born in the Americas from Alaska to the southern tip of South America. In the Ojibwe culture the term Anishinaabe refers to the original, indigenous people of the Americas. The author uses mainly Native American, for most non-Ojibwe people are unaware of this word, and call themselves by their tribal name. When in doubt, ask an Indian-Native American-Anishinaabe-etc., what they prefer to be called!

In Canada, the Ojibwe cover a wide geographical region from Central Saskatchewan, through much of , and into Southern Ontario. In the US, the Ojibwe primarily live in three states: Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan, but have also been in southeastern and Northern Ohio. There are six villages in the political unit called the Lake Superior Band: Red Cliff, Bad River, Mole Lake, La Courte Oreilles, Lac du Flambeau, and St. Croix. There are also a number of villages in Michigan and Minnesota; all established as permanent reservations following the signing of the 1854 Treaty at La Pointe on Madeline Island. The last time I went up north, I was reminded of how famous the Ojibwe are for maple sugar and wild rice harvesting to go along with the fishing and trapping they do.

The Sioux Nation The term Sioux is not considered proper to describe the nations of the Great Plains that consist of linguistically-related tribes such as the Santee, Dakota, Lakota, Nakota, and Ogallala. The word "Sioux" was derived from the word Nadoussioux, which was the old French spelling of the Ojibwe name for them, which meant adders, or enemies. This word was Anglicized, and only the last syllable was retained.81 Although some of these nations themselves use the term for lack of another common name to use, in the interest of respect, it is best to simply ask what the native people of this heritage wish to be called when you are with them.

Specific Dances and Regalia of the Northern Pow Wow Let’s now observe the regalia and individual styles of dancing for each category typically found in Northern Pow Wows.

Men’s Traditional The Men’s Traditional Dance is the oldest dance for men. The original traditional dancers were members of an elite warrior society - protectors and preservers of traditional ways. Although there were a lot of differences between tribes, their purpose was always to help the people of their nation. The Men's Traditional Dance was created in times when warriors would return to the village and dance their story of tracking an enemy or prey. Traditional dancers are usually veterans, and carry items that symbolize their status as warriors while they dance.

81 Laubin, 25. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 91

The outfit of the traditional dancer is more subdued in color than the other dancers. Northern traditional outfits have been increasing in popularity since the 1950's and 1960's. Many male Pow Wow dancers choose this category due to the freedom a dancer can have in designing their outfit. Regardless, the components of an outfit are carefully considered.

The outfits are frequently decorated with bead and quill work, and dancers wear a circular bustle of eagle feathers, representing cycles and the unity of everything. The eagle feather spikes (on the bustle) point upward, representing a channel between the Great Spirit and all things on Earth.

The basic makings of a northern traditional dancer includes either fully or partially beaded moccasins, leggings or pants, dance bells, breechcloths or matching aprons and side tabs hooked to a belt. Ribbon shirts or a plain dress shirt are worn, covered by a beaded or ribbon appliquéd vest. On top of that, some dancers wear one to two bandoliers from one shoulder to the opposing hip. A bone hairpipe breastplate may be worn, or some dancers wear a loop necklace. On their lower back, dancers wear double eagle feather bustles and a wide belt. Atop the head, a traditional dancer has numerous choices ranging from porcupine hair roaches to otter turbans, full animal skins or even military berets. A feather fan is carried in one hand, and the opposite hand can have a dance stick, old style weapon, gun, or shield. Men's Northern Traditional Dance Outfits include:

Roach - Roach Spreader – Headband On his head the traditional dancer wears a roach. The longer porcupine hair is preferred because of its movement. The roach spreader can be made of bone, metal, rawhide or leather. It can be carved, beaded, painted, or just left plain. The roach feathers are inserted in sockets on the spreader, with two roach feathers being the usual number. The rocker spreader, popular with fancy dancers, is rarely seen. Occasionally one will see dancers wearing beaded headbands, often decorated with medallions or drops. Quilled wheels can also be worn in the hair.

Upper Torso Most dancers wear a shirt, either with or without ribbon decoration. Over the shirt is worn a breastplate that usually extends below the waist. Around the neck is a Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 92

choker either of hair pipes and beads or a beaded strip. Many dancers also wear two bandoliers of hair pipes and beads or a 3 to 5 inch strip of otter or other fur decorated with mirrors or a combination of both. A vest can be worn either of cloth or leather. Some are beaded.

Lower Torso: Leg Cover, Apron/Breechclout, Dance Bells On their legs most dancers wear beaded knee bands with 6 to 10 inch leather fringe hanging from the bottom edge. Around the ankles are worn angora "furs". One may see the high style furs worn with the bells tied on at the knees but this is less common. Although not as common, leggings can be worn in place of the furs and knee bands. Both the skin tube style and cloth flap leggings can be seen. When leggings are worn, the bells are tied around the knees. The bells can be almost any size and type. Fully or partially beaded, hard-soled moccasins are worn.

Men's Northern Traditional Outfit Accessories Arm bands and cuffs can be made of beads, metal, or a combination of the two, such as beaded cuffs with metal arm bands. The breech cloth or aprons can be made of either cloth or leather and can be either plain or heavily decorated. Around the waist many dancers wear a belt, which can be beaded or decorated with metal tacks or conchos.82

82 http://www.crazycrow.com/photos/native-american-mens-northern-traditional-01.php

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Men’s Traditional Dance

The dance movements are of warrior actions: hunting, stalking game, or battling the enemy. Traditional dancers carry shields, weapons, honor staffs (used to challenge the enemy decorated with eagle feathers representing achievements in battle), and medicine wheels (carried as a reminder of the wisdom of the four directions, unity and for the cycle of all things in the universe).

During the honor beats (louder beats at a specific point of a song) dancers raise their hand-held objects high in the air. In the plains, the accented beats are sometimes said to represent shots from a gun. Some dancers go low during these beats to avoid the "shots"; however, the majority of dancers lift up their dance objects. 83

The traditional dance step is done with the ball of the foot touching the ground on the first beat, and the whole foot on the second beat, repeating the action on the opposite foot without missing a beat. Each time the foot is placed flatly on the ground, the weight shifts to that foot. The movements of the traditional dancer are patterned after animals and birds, and may be an imitation of tracking or of the animals themselves. Dancing will frequently be a true or exaggerated imitation of a

83 Scott Evans, The Northern Traditional Dancer. Denison, Texas, Crazy Crow Trading Post, 1990, p. 5. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 94

bird or an animal; some with high kicking steps. It is likely that the influence of the social dances of whites have influenced some Native American dance steps in the past one hundred years.

The Grass Dance Much has been written about the Grass Dance, which is also called the Omaha Dance, , or Straight Dance (the latter is actually a southern style). Borrowed from the Omaha tribe, perhaps in the 1860's, the grass dance was popular among plains tribes by 1900, but the traditional Grass Dance Society was not the same as the modern Grass Dance, which came from the practice of wearing grass bunches tucked in the belt to represent scalps. This was quite popular among the Dakota men as far back as 1867, with the meaning also representing abundance. The Grass Dance has been known as the Omaha Dance among the Lakota, because they received it from the Omaha tribe, while the Omaha and tribes still call the dance Hethuhska.84 Each plains tribe developed a different name for the Grass Dance.

The Lakota refined the dance, eliminating some of the ceremonial warrior society elements. The Lakota Omaha Warrior Society dance evolved into a traditional dance society. Among some tribes the warrior society dances died out and were restarted from the Lakota traditional dance society.

The Men's Grass dancers have striking outfits covered with long, colorful fringes. Many dancers wear the hair roach, the crow-belt and the eagle-bone whistle.

Each tribe had badges of office, and some can still be seen as parts of traditional dance outfits today. The bustle, the porcupine hair headdress (roach), the whistle, and whip were all badges, and were not worn by all dancers. Historically, various tribes were allowed to wear the feather bustle. These old time bustles had a symbolism . . . to parts of a battlefield, battles with warriors, enemies, scalps, and arrows. . . The best traditional dancers begin to dance on the first beat of the drum. During the "straight" (regular) War Dance songs there are five accented drum beats, which allow all the dancers to get in step.85

84 Scott Evans, The Northern Traditional Dancer. Denison, Texas, Crazy Crow Trading Post, 1990, p. 2. 85 Evans, p. 3. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 95

Men and boys do a grass dance at the 19th annual County Allied Tribes Inc. Traditional Intertribal Pow Wow at Lake Shawnee, Kansas, Sept. 2009.86

The old style of this regalia was made with grass. Today it is made with long strands of yarn, ribbon, or fringes. The dance is done with fancy and twirls. Also worn are a roach headdress and a feather fan. Grass dancers often make complicated moves while keeping one foot in the air with a great deal of upper body movement, especially the head and shoulders. Slow songs provide the best opportunity to appreciate the fluid movements of the Grass Dance.87

Their dance movements are a sliding, shaking, and spinning motion, similar to long grass blowing in the wind. Since they were the first in the circle, their movements would also aid to stomp the long grass down for the dancers to follow. The steps are similar to the Men’s Traditional but a little freer, as dancers should keep their heads moving either up and down with the beat of the drum, nodding quickly, and moving constantly. Although the Omaha is a freestyle type of dancing, dancers must follow the beat of the drum and stop when the music does, with both feet on the ground. This dance is used for both contest, intertribal songs, and for the fast part of the Sneak Up Dance. The beat is accented on the downbeats in duple time.

Most Sioux Grass Dance and songs have a few words in Native language, which come in one small part of the song. Often the song is sung through

86 http://cjonline.com/life/2009-09-05/powwow_drums_up_dancers 87 http://www.nativewayproductions.com/Dances.htm

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once in vocables only, then the words appear in the second time through. Vocables and words are alternated in this manner during the repetitions of the song. Not all songs follow this format. Rabbit Songs are sometimes sung first in vocables only, the second time in Lakota words, the third time in vocables, and the fourth time in English.88

Men’s Fancy The fancy dance is a relatively new dance. The brilliantly colored feather bustles are said to have originated in Oklahoma in the early 1900's when promoters of large Native American ceremonial gatherings asked dancers to beautify their outfits for the "spectators." Additionally, the dance contest for cash prizes was introduced and contestants started making their outfits more colorful. The Men’s Fancy Dance is done mostly by young males (kids, teens, and a few in their twenties). It is based on the standard "double step" of the traditional and grass dances, but it includes fancy footwork, increased speed, acrobatic steps and varied body movements. The fancy dance is also a freestyle kind of dance, where dancers do whatever they can to keep up with the music, which is usually a torrid tempo! Exhausted Fancy Dancers usually need a break after their contest dancing!

Men’s Fancy Dance

88 Laubin, 97. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 97

Fancy dance regalia are full of color, put together with a roach, beaded headbands, fringed and beaded aprons; arm bustles, two bustles on the back, and bells around the knees and moccasins.

The Switch Dance

The Switch Dance is a fun dance for everyone to see. Men and women wear each other’s regalia, hence the name “switch dance”. Some act silly and make a comedy of the dance, while others take the dance seriously and try to perform it as well as the men or women do while performing their own respective dances.

Women’s Traditional Native American women typically dress from head to toe in Pow Wow dancing, but this was not always the case. The first white settlers reported that many dances were done nearly naked, and that the normal dress for Native Americans in warm weather was to wear practically nothing. Because of the European concept that a scantily clad woman is not respectable, the mistreatment of women that occurred led to the necessity of the high degree of modesty that exists today.

Women use essentially the same articles as men, but usually don’t wear roaches or bustles. Dresses of buckskin, wool or other material are heavily decorated with Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 98

beading, quillwork, elk teeth, bone, antler or shells. Like men, colors for traditional dancers are more subdued than for fancy dancers. Northern traditional women’s regalia is distinctly different from the southern style. For one, dresses are primarily made of white buckskin. In the past, it was more common to find golden or yellow buckskin, but with the advent of industrialization and the bleaching process, white buckskin became available in the 40's and 50's, but it was prohibitively expensive. Now the buckskin is cheaper and widely used for dresses, moccasins and other regalia. It is kept clean by using a white clay ball that is stored with the dancers’ regalia repair kit, in a Ziploc bag.

The buckskin dresses are not left plain; instead, regalia makers bead intricate family or tribal designs into the top 1/3 of the dress. No two sets of regalia are alike. Beading of the dresses can take a year or two alone, not to mention the accessories that each dancer carries. Each dancer should carry her dress, a beaded belt, strike- a-light and awl case, knife sheath, leggings and moccasins. Another component of the dancers regalia include a beaded fan and a shawl that is made of a synthetic material and dressed with fringe that is roughly 18-20 inches long. Artisans work carefully to ensure that each of the thousands of strands is the same length, and then tie them together, either in a knot, or in a chainlette design. The leggings and moccasins are made to fit the dancer and beaded as well. In some rare cases, women will wear coned moccasins, but this is not seen very often.89

In the mid 1800's when beads were acquired through trade, the style for the women's traditional dance outfit was to bead the entire top of the dress. The design of each had a symbolic meaning to the individual owner. The dresses are decorated with ribbon work, elk's teeth and shells, among other things. The

89 http://ndnfoodie530.hubpages.com/hub/Powwow-Dance-Styles-Womens-Northern-Traditional

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dancers usually wear decorated moccasins, knee-high leggings, beaded or concho belts and various pieces of jewelry such as hair ties, earrings, chokers and necklaces. Most traditional dancers wear or carry a shawl, and carry either a single feather or a feather fan in their right hand consisting of eagle or hawk feathers. An eagle plume is often worn on the back of the head.

Beautiful but heavy breastplates and chokers made of bone and crystal beads, and intricately beaded medallion necklaces, purses and buckskin moccasins and leggings are the necessary pieces of the outfit. Each piece may be decorated with beadwork that matches or compliments the dancer's favored color. A beaded drag hangs at the center back of the dress and a silver or beaded hangs from the front of the belt. Often a beaded crown completes the outfit. There are as many variations on the dress as there are individuals. The origin of each piece and its use also varies from tribe to tribe but many pieces have originated from the tools that women carried and used most often in their daily work such as awl cases, knife pouches and even straps used as horse whips or to bundle and carry things.

Women’s Traditional Dancers

The shawl can be worn in two ways, covering the shoulder or folded over the one arm. The dress can be made with buckskin (white or smoked) or with cloth. The beadwork and color of regalia reflect the tribe and family emblems. If the dress is not full length, high moccasins or leggings must be worn to cover the legs. No part of the leg should be seen.

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Originally, some dances were performed before the warriors left the tribe to hunt, raid, or do battle. While the men were away, the ladies would prepare their best buckskin dresses and accessories to wear in anticipation of the party's return. This was to show honor and pride for their men. Dances were also performed when they returned to celebrate their success. As the men arrived into the camp, the women would stand in rows, yelling and trilling for their warrior. This is why the Women's Traditional Dance consists of remaining stationary in a stately and poised manner, bending the knees gracefully with a slight up and down movement of the body, keeping time with the drum. At the same time, the feet shift subtly and the women turn slightly. In some traditions this symbolizes the way the women turned and looked for their warriors to come home. At certain points in the song, women may hear words that have meaning to them. They may signal their pride and acknowledge the words by raising their feather fans. Others raise their fans during the honor beats of a song. It is expected that Women's Traditional Dancers will follow the beat of the drum and will stop dancing precisely when the music does.

Traditionally, women only danced to certain songs or occasions, and even then they were in the background. In the old days, men did the dancing. Only in recent decades have women been accepted to dance with the men in the sacred circle.

Women’s Fancy Shawl The Fancy Shawl Dance outfit consists of a decorative knee-length cloth dress, beaded moccasins with high matching leggings, a fancy shawl (a long, gracefully fringed shawl draped over the shoulders), a belt, and various pieces of jewelry.

The Women's Fancy Shawl Dance, like the male counterpart, is a relatively new dance. Until only recently, women performed their fancy dancing in traditional garb. Some accounts say in the early 1900's shawls replaced the blankets and buffalo robes young girls traditionally wore in public. In the 1930's and '40's, young women would show off the shawls they made by doing some fancy footwork at the dances, thus creating the Fancy Shawl Dance.

Originally a Northern Plains style, the Fancy Shawl Dance as it looks today was popularized in the 1960's and 1970's. Like their male counterparts, shawl dancers use spins, intricate footwork, and make use of the ribbons and fringes on their dance clothes to emphasize a fast-paced style of dancing.90

The dance itself is similar to the Men's Fancy Dance, and the style is moving toward more spinning moves, with twirling, rapid dance steps. Its rigor makes it perfect

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for young people, just like the Men’s Fancy Dance. Footwork is the main element of the dance. Fancy Shawl Dancers must follow the changing beat of the drum and stop when the music does with both feet on the ground.

Although there is more than one version of the origin of Women’s Fancy Dance, its evolution has been witnessed by the public in the pow-wow arena. One anecdote relates that women were dancing in men's fancy dance regalia, but when they began to enter competition and beat the men, it was decided that they should have their own dance. Now women's fancy dance features a fast pace and the distinctive brightly colored shawl. The shawl itself is an adaptation of the blanket carried or worn traditionally by women.

The Women’s Fancy Shawl dance was originally danced in the northern part of Indian country by a few brave women who were sometimes ostracized or booed for their efforts by traditionalists who were resistant to change. It gradually gained acceptance over many years and has adapted to its present form. The dance itself is a combination of intricate footwork that is choreographed extemporaneously in response to the beat and tone of the music form the drum and singers. The appropriate style of this dance is one of a constant whirl of beauty and grace, Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 102

rather than wild movements. In addition to style and footwork, judges will look for endurance, agility, and a good measure of showmanship.91

Jingle Dress The Jingle Dress Dance has an Ojibwe origin, which relates that there was a young Ojibwe girl who was sick, and nothing could cure her. Fearing he could lose his daughter, the young girl’s father fasted, seeking a vision to save her. In the vision he received, the father was shown a special dress, along with instructions on how to make the dress, songs to sing, and instructions for the dance. He was told when everything was ready to prepare a feast for the community, and to hold a dance for the people.

The father did as he was instructed, and his wife made the dress according to the vision. Family members helped prepare the feast and arranged for the dance. The young girl was attired in the dress. The father told her how the dance was to be performed. The girl wore the dress into the dance circle but because she was so weak, had to be carried the first time around. The second time around, the young girl could walk with someone supporting her on each side. The third time, the girl was able to walk on her own. On the fourth time around, the girl began to take small dance steps, the way her father had instructed her. By the time she made it around the circle, she was dancing. The young girl was cured, and today the Jingle Dress is known as a healing dress. Jingle Dress dancers are known for their quick, controlled footwork that is at the same time, elegant and poised.92

The jingle dress is made of tin tops (like snuff cans tops) that are rolled into a cone shape. The cones are then sewn into the dress in rows. It can take between 400 and 700 jingles to complete an adult jingle dress. During the dance, the tin cones jingle to the beat of the drum. Scarves are worn instead of shawls and high moccasins.93

91 http://www.gatheringofnations.com/educational/powwow_dancers/powwow_dancers_2.htm 92 http://www.potawatomiheritage.org/womens-jingle-dress-dance 93 http://www.southeast-native-american.com/native_american_regalia.html Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 103

Women’s Jingle Dress94

In the late 1920's, members of the White Earth Reservation (in Minnesota) gave the jingle dress to the Lakota (Sioux) and it spread westward into the Dakotas and Montana. The jingle dress nearly died out, but recent interest in the jingle dress has been rekindled and women from many tribes are making and wearing them today. The dress is made of cloth covered with hundreds of tin cones (originally made from snuff tin covers) or jingles. The sound of the jingle dress is not likely to be mistaken for anything else, and the Jingle Dress Dancers are known for the healing quality of their dance. Jingle dress dancers must keep time to the music and stop when the music does with both feet on the ground. The Jingle Dress shuffle and some Round Dance Songs (social dances) are in duple meter, with accents on every other beat on the offbeats. Other Round Dance Songs are in triple meter with the typical long-short-long-short beat.

94 http://www.shannonthunderbird.com/Miranda-good.jpg Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 104

Social Dances There are many social dances, where people pick partners and go out into the circle. The steps for these dances often take a "follow the leader" type of approach, and the Head Male and Head Female Dancers lead the action. Some moves are rather crazy, just to get people laughing.

One popular social dance is known as the the 49'er, which contains words and short phrases in English. Back in World War I, fifty Native Americans went off to fight. The story is that they got together in a ceremony and vowed they would all come back. All came back but one. The dance is to honor victory, and to honor the one who lost his life for his country. Couples face clockwise, arms in skater's clasp, and balance forward and back with a limping motion. Some call it the "Two Step". Although 49'er dances are danced at a Pow Wow, they are not to be confused with the event called the 49'er, which is not a Pow Wow, but a social , usually for teens. These 49’ers often include alcohol, which is not acceptable at Pow Wows.

The Crow Hop is often done at Pow Wows, and probably originated from the Crow tribe of Montana, and may imitate the crow walking, with one step per beat, which almost simulates an exaggerated "jog." The beats are evenly accented, and are in duple meter.

The Hoop Dance At some Pow Wows a Hoop Dance is performed, giving an exhibition of talent that combines continuous dancing with the addition of one hoop at a time until dozens upon dozens of hoops are being connected to make such formations as circles, butterflies, or eagles. This very difficult dance is usually performed by people under the age of 20, and often a blanket is passed during the exhibition for gifts. Money donated is usually put away for travel or college expenses.

In addition to the hoop dance, various drawings and raffles occur, and some Pow Wows offer a souvenir program book.

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Terrence Littletent comes from Kawacatoose First Nation (Saskatchewan) and is a world champion Hoop Dancer. Originally the Hoop Dance was performed by medicine men and spiritual leaders as medicinal and/or visionary dances. Visions were seen through the hoops to cure ailments or see the future. The Hoop Dance allows the dancer to weave the story of how all living things on the earth are connected and how they grow and change. Hoop dancers use dozens of hoops to imitate a number of creatures found on Mother Earth. Every dancer lends his or her own interpretation, but each follows the theme of harmony with nature.95

Other Pow Wow Songs Some non-religious dance songs such as Rabbit Songs, Round Dance Songs, and Omaha Songs can be sung in honor of someone, if so desired. Penny Songs occur during a Pow Wow giveaway, and as the songs are sung, they dance to the center of the dance area. Kettle Dances were danced as part of the grass dance and were

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done before the feast; a blessing for the food. They can be prayers, or speak of acts of bravery.

Pow Wow Representatives A royalty contest, or to use a more traditional name, a representative contest may occur, at traditional or contest Pow Wows. Male and female representatives are categorized according to age group, and are selected by a panel of judges for their cultural knowledge, dancing skills, and composure. It is not a “beauty contest.” Most representatives are raised in a traditional way, which takes years of upbringing and teachings. They need not necessarily have Indian blood, but most do. One year, the chosen representative for the Whitewater Mounds Pow Wow (Wisconsin) was a blonde, white girl who clearly impressed the judges with her knowledge of tradition. She had grown up on the reservation, and was bestowed the honor without hesitation. Chosen representatives are to attend other Pow Wows and wear a sash indicating the Pow Wow they represent, and to promote good public relations as a form of advertisement for the home Pow Wow. Some traditional Pow Wows do not have a representative contest.

The Giveaway Another important event at a Pow Wow is the Giveaway, common among Native American people. In Native American society a person being honored hosts the give away and gives the gifts! It has been said that the chief of the tribe is always the poorest man in the village for he looked out for the good of all of his people. Charged with their welfare, and honored by them, chiefs would give away blankets, horses, food, and whatever else his people needed. There is also a common philosophy that the giver of a gift benefits from a gift as much or more than the receiver.

Today, giveaways are usually given by the Pow Wow Committee sponsoring the Pow Wow, and/or the family of a Pow Wow representative winner, or the family of someone who was honored in some way, perhaps at the same Pow Wow a year previously. Gifts, many of them homemade, are spread out on a blanket and the elders, dancers, traders, and general public all walk up to the blanket in that order and select a gift, then go to shake hands of each person who gave a gift and then those who selected a gift before them. When everyone has received a gift, an honor dance is then danced by all who gave and received a gift.

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The Giveaway begins with a special song sung by the drum for the particular person or people honored, usually a family song that was composed for that family. The person or people and their friends then slowly dance around the circle, and people in attendance who feel so moved are allowed to give the people a small gift and then join the "procession." This will usually continue for about one or two songs, when the dance will end and the people return to their seats. The person or people honored will go to the Emcee's table and have a person speak for them, who tells about the honored party and then announces the names of people whom they in turn would like to show their appreciation to. When a person's name is called, he or she stands and walks around the arena to the Emcee's table and receives a gift, which is often a very nice blanket or a food basket of some sort. It is always customary in a giveaway to honor the head staff and the drum, and then honor those who have helped you.96

The Feast A significant part of a Pow Wow is the feast. Most Pow Wows have at least one, two, or even three, depending on the length of the Pow Wow and decisions of the Pow Wow committee. Feasts are usually free and open to the public, but some may charge to cover costs. Traditional food is often served, along with pot luck dishes donated by Pow Wow Committee members and community members. The feast is usually blessed by a tribal elder or the Pow Wow's spiritual advisor. For the free feasts, food is usually served to the head staff and dancers, with elders always going first. After the “V.I.P.’s” have been served, then any food remaining is given to the general public. If a fee is charged, it is assumed that there is plenty of food for whoever pays.

96 http://library.thinkquest.org/3081/rules.htm

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Pow Wow Protocol Due to the rampant alcoholism in many reservations, Pow Wows are alcohol and drug free. This includes attendees as well as participants. Besides having to endure nothing short of a holocaust, third-world poverty, and racial prejudice, Native Americans have a startlingly high rate of alcohol-related problems and fatalities. It is not surprising that a central theme for a number of Pow Wows is sobriety, and these rules are to be followed.

In the Ojibwe culture, women who are on their menstrual cycles are asked to not dance in the circle, nor should they take part in the activity of food preparation. This rule is often misunderstood by non-Native Americans. The rule is not designed in any way to speak negatively of women on their "moon." It is believed that women, who are already very powerful in many ways, have even more power during this time, and that extra power, if taken into the circle, can interfere with the prayers going on. If food were prepared by women on their "moons," the same type of disruption would occur. In some traditions, women are given special places to go during their moon. Women on their moon are welcome to attend Pow Wows, but are asked to not enter the dance arena.

In the Anishinaabe way, dogs are also not allowed in the circle. Some misinterpret this to mean that the Anishinaabe do not like dogs. Quite the opposite is true. Dogs have a special closeness to wolves, and according to legend; a long time ago, the Creator asked the Wolf and Man, who were once brothers, to go their separate ways in that they could not attend each other's ceremonies. Their relationship could be close in sentiment, but a certain distance must be maintained. For that reason, dogs are not to be taken into the dance arena. Again, know that both mentioned protocol rules are not universal in the entire U.S. Because Pow Wows have many northern and southern peoples, dogs are usually not allowed in the circle, and most events do not allow dogs on the grounds except for service dogs. The southern Pow Wows I have attended did allow dogs on the grounds.

Children of all ages are welcome in the circle, but small infants who cannot yet walk on their own are not taken into the circle, for it has been said that one might misinterpret carrying a baby into the circle as an offering to the Great Spirit, and in the Anishinaabe way, humans are not offered in this manner. As soon as a child can walk, they can "dance," and the sight of little children dancing in the circle, especially if in an outfit, is sure to bring a smile to anyone!

If an eagle feather is dropped to the ground, everything essentially stops, and a special ceremony must take place immediately. If one sees an eagle feather on the ground in the dance circle, they are to tell the nearest registered dancer, and they will notify the arena director. If an eagle feather is found outside the arena it is Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 109

picked up by a veteran with an eagle fan and transported to a suitable spot on the dance arena and set back on the ground. The arena director, in both cases, will be trying to find the owner. A special ceremony to retrieve the feather is then performed. The feather owner's tribe will take precedence as to how the ceremony will be performed. In all cases, the feather retrieval takes precedence, and no one else is in the circle while this is going on.

The dropping of an eagle feather means that some issue must be addressed, such as gossip overheard, egotistical behavior, or some severe break with tradition or protocol. Sometimes the reason is not known, but the Pow Wow simply does not continue until the problem is addressed:

In the Ojibwe way four veterans are required. They dance around the feather and the one to pick it up is preferably a wounded combat veteran. A dropped eagle feather must be given away to begin a new life. In all cases it is given to the veteran who picked it up. The owner, with proper respect, gives the four veterans gifts with the help of relatives and friends. The drum that sings the special song for the retrieval of the dropped eagle feather is also compensated by the person who dropped the feather according to the value it had to the owner. No photographs are allowed during this ceremony.97

All guests, participants and visitors are expected to show proper Pow Wow etiquette and subscribe to the rules and protocol that the Pow Wow circuit follows. Given are some typical etiquette rules that apply to Pow Wows all across the U.S.:

All Pow Wow Festivals are Alcohol and Drug Free.

Pictures during the Flag, Prayer, and Honor Songs and when an individual is honoring a drum through a whistle- should not be taken.

Guests are asked to stand and remove your hat for certain songs. You do not have to remove your hat if you have an eagle feather in it.

Tradition is to respect visiting chiefs and elders by giving them priority for all matters of etiquette.

Do not crowd around the drummers.

Always ask for permission before making any recordings.

Children are welcome to enjoy this event, but cannot play in the Sacred Circle.

97 Teaching from Bin-Nay-Shee. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 110

Participants are asked to respect the arena director, head dance man and woman head dancer.

Respect the work of the security committee as their time is valuable.

Heed what the master of ceremonies states during the Pow Wow.

"When the Pow Wow is about to be over, the flags are danced out by the men who danced them in. During this retreat of the colors, he other traditional dancers rally around to escort and symbolically protect the flags."98

Today, the Pow Wow circuit is huge. Throughout the year, in cities, towns, villages and reservations; men, women and children of all ages gather together to celebrate the traditions, heritage, and culture of the Pow Wow.

Ojibwe Musical Styles Ojibwe music represents the easternmost part of a large area of Native American musical culture - the Northern Plains. Fortunately, a lot of this culture was also preserved through early recordings. Alice Fletcher recorded the first Ojibwe music in 1899. Frances Densmore made recordings of over 500 Ojibwe songs from 1907-1913. Over the years, due to the decreasing number of those who speak indigenous languages, songs that have only vocables have increased in number.

Ojibwe melodies use wide ranges of up to two octaves placed in the highest part of the singers' voices, resulting in loud, forceful singing which has almost a barking effect.99 As high as these songs are, they are not sung in falsetto! Let’s look at the usual structure of Pow Wow songs:

Drum beats begin Lead singer begins first phrase Second - rest of the male singers enter The "A" section is completed The "B" section is sung - women may join in one octave higher The "B" section is repeated. If an honor song, honor beats are struck every other time The lead singer begins while others are completing the phrase (If women are singing, extra space is made for them to finish off the phrase before lead singer returns to the beginning)100

98 Scott Evans, The Northern Traditional Dancer. Denison, Texas, Crazy Crow Trading Post, 1990, p. 5. 99 Vennum, Thomas, Jr. "Ojibway Music From Minnesota: Continuity and Change." St. Paul: the Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1989, p. 8. 100 Talmadge, Randy, and Jan Saiz. "Workshop in Native American Music Handout." Madison, Wisconsin: for the Sonneck Society for American Music April 8, 1995. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 111

In a drum group, a song is begun by the lead singer who is joined a few notes later by the rest of the group who finish the fairly short phrase (musical idea) along with the leader. This portion is called the “second”. The next musical phrase that follows is slightly lower than the lead and second, and the subsequent phrase is also lower, with the end of the section usually being the lowest note in the song. The singers go back to the beginning of the melody but omit the first (A) phrase. Most songs progress downward within a compass of five notes to an octave, usually ending on the lowest and main tone.101

Songs are usually performed four times through, (push-ups) unless the leader of the drum group requests more push-ups, usually because the song is going well or simply needs to be longer. If fewer push-ups are done, it’s for ceremonial reasons, or the next event or must begin to stay on schedule. In rare cases a song is cut short when things aren’t going well musically or there is some negative feeling going on, either in the drum group or in the Pow Wow. When the last push-up is reached, the final coda or "tail" (a final incomplete repetition) is sung, preceded by a brief break in the drumming to signal the end of the song.102 The part where the drumming stops and just the vocals are singing has been referred to as the "prayer" part of the song.103 Many Pow Wow songs are sung in this form, known as the "incomplete repetition" form. Some examples are given:

//:AA'BCD/BCD:// //:A BCC'DE://* //:ABCDE/B'C'DE://B'C'DE* *Sections with meaningful words are underlined104

When an apostrophe is given, such as in A’, or B’, (called A “prime” or B “prime”) the melody is very similar to the original letter’s material with either simply more singers, or a slight embellishment, but is not a new melody or material. Sections are not really very long. Each new letter signifies a shift in the melody to (usually) a lower group of notes, since much of this music begins with high pitches and works its way to lower pitches.

A number of songs of the Ojibwe and many tribes are composed in dreams and some of them in puberty fasts. Although sacred in origin, these songs came to be used for a number of purposes such as war dances, women's dances, healing, and

101 Kurath, Gertrude, annotator. Songs and Dances of the Great Lakes Indians - liner notes. P. 14. 102 Vennum, Thomas, Jr. "Ojibway Music From Minnesota: Continuity and Change." St. Paul: the Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1989, p. 8. 103 Teaching by Bobby Williams, Lac du Flambeau Ojibwe, 1996. 104 Vennum, Thomas, Jr. "Ojibway Music From Minnesota: Continuity and Change." St. Paul: the Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1989, p. 8, 10. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 112

moccasin games. Due to influences of modern day times, many of these songs have undergone transformation to faster tempos and a higher range in the vocals.

Not all songs are Pow Wow songs by any means! Moccasin Game Songs are one of the principal songs to accompany gambling. In one version, four bullets (one of them especially marked) were concealed in two pairs of moccasins. One team of players would try to guess where the marked bullet was, and the other team would try to conceal the bullet and, through distractions, prevent the other team from guessing correctly. The singing is lively and designed to distract the opposing team.

Like most Native American traditions, the art of storytelling among the Ojibwe is a strong custom, but has declined with the advent of electronic media. The loss of the native language and competition from other diversions has reduced the number of teachings from elders to their children and grandchildren. Many stories contained brief songs meant to have been performed by the character. These songs have changed very little, as noted when a Densmore recording in 1907 varied little from a John Nichols recording in 1971 in a story song.105 Today, efforts of language preservation are being renewed in earnest, as they are critical to the future of the Ojibwe (and other) languages and the stories that go with them.

Traditionally, love songs are done with unaccompanied voice or flute in an improvised style. Some songs were performed on both, with alternating stanzas. While Pow Wow songs have two to four lines of words, game songs, story songs, and love songs may be fairly lengthy. To give the reader an idea of the Ojibwe language, three stanzas of a love song are given, along with a translation to English, but keep in mind this was an ORAL language, so there are several possible spellings for many Ojibwe words:

Debwewebide waasamoo-jiimaanenzhish inaabiyaan gii-ani-naaniibawishi niinimoshenh mii gwana wiin go zhigwa wii-ani-maajaad [ni . . .] niinimoshenh.

Inaabiyaan animwewebideg waasamoo-jiimaanezh-ish gii-ani-naaniibawishi niinimoshenh ani-waawaasiwebinaad waabishki-mooshwens.

Apane gosha wiin gaa-bishkwewebideg oshki-oodenaansing mii gosha niin go ezhi- mawiyaan mikwendamaan gaa-babaa-ayikidod.

The sound of an old motor boat is heard When I look, my sweetheart was standing as she left My sweetheart intends to leave.

105 Vennum, Thomas, Jr. "Ojibway Music From Minnesota: Continuity and Change." St. Paul: the Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1989, p. 9. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 113

When I look, the old motor boat is heard departing My sweetheart was standing as she left Waving a white handkerchief.

It fades away going to Walker. I just cry when I remember what she said around.106

Other dances:

The Buffalo Head Dance Uses a water drum, and features drum rolls. Men and women side-step counterclockwise to the right, facing the center of the circle, then they turn around during the drum tremolos and side-step left, facing outward from the circle, then turn around and repeat the steps.

The Bear Claw or Grizzly Has drum tremolos and has a duple beat. A straight line of alternating men and women dance head down, arms extended at shoulder level during the tremolo, and face forward, trot in place and claw the air to the duple drum beat. The Calumet Dance resembles the Bear Claw Dance but has additional movements. It has some similarities to the Iroquois Eagle Dance.

The Soldier or Victory Round Dance Descends from the Scalp Dance celebrations of the Cheyenne and Arapaho. In the Oklahoma reservations it was taken over by all tribes as a social dance, and it has become so popular in the Midwest that they can go on into the night at some Pow Wows. It is in a triple meter, and features vocables.107

The Fish Dance Is for a group of fishermen, and they fit their movements to the sections of the song that imitate the movements of fins.

Rabbit Song A humorous song similar to the Fish Dance.

The Canoe Song Represents calling a friend over to the other shore across a lake in the canoe.

The Pow Wow Dance, Horse Dance, Friendship Dance, War Dance Men’s dances with fancy hops and leaps in duple meter.

106 Vennum, Thomas, Jr. "Ojibway Music From Minnesota: Continuity and Change." St. Paul: the Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1989, p. 13. 107 Kurath, Gertrude, annotator. Songs and Dances of the Great Lakes Indians - liner notes. P. 5. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 114

The Deer Dance For hunters in autumn before going on a hunt. The men represent the bucks, and dance with their heads held down.

Marriage Dance In the marriage ceremony, the couple takes a stick, pole, or wand, and each hold one end with the pole held horizontally between them, representing that both parts of the couple are still single. After an invocation by an elder, the couple dance with the pole, and the elder joins them after the invocation. Relatives and friends join in, and the couple breaks up the pole until they are no longer apart. The pole is broken into as many pieces as there are people. Each person receives a piece of the pole as a remembrance.

Songs for the Dead Songs are sung by people about to die until they are no longer able to sing, and then friends and relatives would carry on. After someone passed away, songs were sung all day and into the next day.

There are many hunting songs, planting songs, and canoeing songs too. Most songs have three or four lines of words that are repeated for each push-up. Given are some lines from different songs as they appear in Ojibwe:

binesiwag giganawenimigoog The Thunderbirds are taking care of us. (Grand Entry Song)

ogichidaakwe naaniimi Warrior woman, she is dancing (Pow Wow Song - probably an intertribal)

The latter line is in reference to women who belong to the Big Drum Society.108 Some women today have their own drum, although it is smaller than the men's.

Given is a line from a moccasin game song:

ninga-wiidabinmaa netaabimodang I will sit with one who knows how to score

Not all Ojibwe songs follow a certain form or structure, but simply tell a story. They may have a few words or many words.

108 Vennum, p. 7. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 115

Nindinemdam (Thinking)

Nyaa nindinendam (Oh I am thinking) Mekawiyaanin (I am reminded) Endanakiiyaan (Of my homeland) Waasawekamig (A faraway place) Endanakiiyaan (My homeland)

Nidaanisens e (My little daughter) Nigwizisens e (My little son) Ishe naganagwaa (I leave them far behind) Waasawekamig (A faraway place) Endanakiiyaan (My homeland)

Zhigwa gosha wiin (Now) Beshowad e we (It is near) Ninzhike we ya (I am alone) Ishe izhayaan (As I go) Endanakiiyaan (My homeland)

Endanakiiyaan (My homeland) Ninzhike we ya (I am alone) Ishe giiweyaan (I am going home) Nyaa nigashkendam (Oh I am sad) Endanakiiyaan (My homeland) Jane Johnston Schoolcraft, a.k.a. Baamewaawaagizhigokwe "Woman of the Sound the Stars Make Rushing Through the Sky" (1800-1842)

Jane Johnston Schoolcraft was born in Sault Ste. Marie. An Ojibwe (Chippewa, Anishinaabe) and the granddaughter of the revered chief Waubojeeg, she began as early as 1815 to write poetry and traditional stories while translating songs and other Ojibwe works. Literary scholars and historians consider her to be the first known Native American literary writer. As the wife of the Michigan Territory Indian agent Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, she continued her work, collaborating with him to document Native cultures. Some of her essays were originally published in "Literary Voyager" - also known as "Muzzeniegun." Her stories were adapted and published by her husband, and became a key source for Longfellow's popular epic poem "The Song of Hiawatha."

Jane Johnston Schoolcraft lived during an extraordinary period in Michigan history and overcame persistent social conventions regarding women and Native Americans to create something of real value for the generations that followed. More than 160 years after her death, her work is widely studied in scholarly articles and published in literary anthologies. As a poet, storyteller/translator, she is now attracting attention as an invaluable treasure of American and American Indian literature and history.109

109 http://www.umich.edu/~ojibwe/songs/nindinendam.html (mp3 download available here also) Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 116

Current Trends, Drum Groups Many songs have been passed down to northern plains tribes from Canada, first to the Dakota states, then to Montana and Wyoming. A newer style of singing, said to have originated in Chiniki Lake in Alberta in the late 1980's, uses Lakota or Nakota words extensively to replace the vocables. Chris Eagle Hawk, a Lakota member of the Crazy Horse Singers, stated that "unlike the Sioux songs of long ago whose words told a story of honor or bravery, today's songs in this category tell no logical story, but like the Beach Boys, urge one to Dance, Dance, Dance." The Canadian Chiniki Lake Singers may have reached the summit of recognition, with the Stoney Park and Blackstone Singers not far behind. Other popular Canadian groups are Red Bull, Stoney Park, and Elk's Whistle. The Porcupine Singers, Ironwood Singers, Badland Singers, Red Earth Singers, Kicking Woman Singers, Sun Eagle, Black Lodge, Star Society, Moccasin Flats, Cozad, Mystic River Singers, Tha Tribe, and Young Bird are all well-known Native American groups.

Thoughts about Dancing Here are some good words about dancing from Ben Black Bear, Sr. 1976 (from Songs and Dances of the Lakota):

I will now tell of dancing and how many men and women among you have no interest in it. Many of you who dance (and will dance) know the beauty of it, and know that it is the highest form of enjoyment. What evil things you had planned to do, you will not do. You will keep your mind on only the dancing and your body will be well; it will not be fat. Your body will be very well. And your arms and body will be well. Whoever dances is never sick as long as he dances. Going to dances is good fun, and also, dancing can make your disposition good. If someone does not do this, I do not know why he is on this earth. People use the dance to lecture those who like to strike their families. While you are alive, you give homage to the Great Spirit, and you will do favors for others, and then you will enjoy yourself. If one does not do those things, he will explode within himself. These three things are the highest in law (by word of mouth). Realize this. These are truths. So be it."110

The dancer must truly know the Native American songs and the correct dance style of the song, including recognizing honor beats (if present) at the right time. The dancer dances in rhythm with the song, and knows how the songs are constructed so that the endings are done exactly at the right time. Sonny Larvie, the 1960 and 1961 National Champion Indian Dancer said this about enjoying the dance: "I can't explain the feeling you get from dancing, you come under the Spirit in the song and

110 Evans, p. 18. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 117

the drumbeat is within you - it's like a runner's high; a dancer gets a high - you really have a good time."111

Sun Dance Songs Leaving the subject of Pow Wow songs, there are a number of songs associated with the sacred Sun Dance discussed earlier in the text. There is some disagreement as to whether the dance originated with the Sioux nations or the Anishinaabe.

For the actual Sun Dance, dancers may make an eagle bone whistle, grass skirt, and skewers. Others will choose the cottonwood tree and prepare it according to tradition. When the tree is brought back, it must not be touched by human hands, and must not be dropped to the ground. The tree is erected and dancers attach themselves to the tree, and the skewers pierce their flesh. They dance all day, and usually rest on the ground at night, but the Sun Dance is a four day fast, and no food or water is allowed, although a mixture of herbs and water can be given at some Sun Dances. Additional details about this dance are not intended to be shared in the written tradition, except that the ceremony and the songs that go with it are considered to be sacred. There are songs for many parts of the Sun Dance, including entrance into the circle, piercing, and prayers. The Sun Dance and other ceremonies were outlawed by the U.S. government until 1978, and some were put in federal prison for such "offenses". Those who do the Sun Dance are usually expected to do at least four Sun Dances, usually one per year. Unquestionably, sun dancers are most highly respected.

Today there are many examples of combining traditional Native American and Christian beliefs as well. Our Lady of the Sioux, a Catholic chapel in Oglala, South Dakota, on the Pine Ridge Reservation, is an example of combining two traditions. The altar cloth is a buffalo hide, and a carved wooden figure hanging on the cross above the altar is a Native American Christ. Candles are held in buffalo horns, and thunderbirds, lightning, and sacred pipes design the walls. Songs and ceremonies continue to evolve in traditional ways and in manners combining influences from other cultures. Additionally, despite past wounds, I have found traditional Native Americans to be profoundly patriotic.

Grandfather, I love your country, and your war bonnet will wave above the earth forever. - Sioux National Anthem -112

111 Evans, p. 18. 112 Laubin, 93. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 118

Southern Pow Wows and Dance Styles Most Pow Wow dances descended from the Plains tribes of Canada and the United States. Southern Pow Wows are similar to northern, with a few variations. They have a Grand Entry, Flag Song, Invocation, and a Veteran’s Song. After that, the first dance at Southern Pow-wows is a Round Dance, where men form an inner circle; the women an outer circle. This dance is sometimes called a Victory Dance. At non-competitive Pow Wows, the most common is the intertribal, where a drum will sing a song and anyone who wants to can come and dance. There is also the trot dance, called a crow hop when performed by a northern drum or a horse stealing song by a southern drum. The Ruffle Dance is danced by the men’s fancy dancers, which "ruffle" their double-bustles during the fast drum-rolling sections of the song, and then dance very fast during the fast sections. This dance originated with the Otoe-Missouria Tribe in Oklahoma in the early 1900’s. The Side-Step is another very fast dance where the ladies jingle-dress dancers use a variety of sideways scooting steps around the arena to a special song. The steps are not the same type of side-ways movement as round-dancing.113

In addition to the open dances, contest dances for a particular style and age group are often held, with the top winners receiving cash prizes. To compete in a contest the dancer must be in an outfit appropriate for the competition. There are often many categories of competition, which reduces the time for intertribals, so it is best to get in the circle and dance while you can if you are not a competitor!

While competitive and intertribal dancing is an individual activity, there are also dances for couples and groups. Couples dances include the two step and owl dance. In a two step, each couple follows the lead of the head dancers, forming a line behind them, whereas in an owl dance each couple dances alone. Group dances include the Snake and , where the group dances to mimic the motions of a snake in the beginning of the dance, then change to mimic the actions of a herd of buffalo.

Since many of the southern dance styles are similar to the northern styles, let’s look at a few dances that stand out as particularly “southern.”

113 http://www.littlecrowtradingpost.com/pagedance.htm

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Kiowa

Gourd Dances At Pow Wows where there is a large Southern Plains community in the area, Gourd Dances are often included before the Pow Wow grand entry. The gourd dance originated with the Kiowa tribe, and is a society dance for veterans and their families. The gourd dance is normally performed with the drum in the center of the dance arena, not on the side. Originally the gourd dance was done by warriors, and today they are done by veterans and those who have done exceptional things in their life. With the Kiowa, the men wear red and blue blankets. Red commemorates the Kiowas at war against the Spanish and the blue against the U.S. Cavalry. This dance is not part of a competition and is performed separately from the other dances.

Southern Pow Wows often divide categories into Northern Traditional and Southern Straight. This traditional dance is a “Gentleman’s dance,” which tells a definite story of a hunting or war party on the trail of an animal or an enemy. The dancer is constantly searching for his prey. There is an exuberant “whoop” when the trail is sighted, and the warrior begins to follow the signs of his prey. The dress will vary from tribe to tribe, which will include a porcupine headdress, ribbon work, and an otter tail extending down the back of the dancer. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 120

Southern Straight Dance Popular among Southern Plains tribes, Straight Dance clothes are characterized by hand- stitched ribbon work strips on the leggings and apron as well as hand-worked silver discs worn on the back. 114

Also worn with this regalia is a roach headdress, ribbon shirt, cotton or buckskin pants, a breastplate (sometimes), a dance stick and moccasins. The men dance upright and straight, with a graceful, complex combination of steps.

Women’s Southern Traditional Southern women traditional dancers also may wear cloth regalia. Cloth, ribbons, beads, and silverwork were obtained in trade and each tribe adapted their use to suit their own tastes and styles. The use and adaptation of new materials to express native identity is an ongoing process. The judges will be looking for elegance, poise, and proper elements of the dance, such as the slight bowing at the honor beats that characterizes Southern Traditional Dance (as opposed to lifting their feather fans in the air).115

114 http://www.nativewayproductions.com/Dances.htm 115 http://www.geocities.com/menahshands1/kpage.html

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Ladies’ Southern Cloth Dance This elegant dance is a slow and graceful walk with a gentle sway in exact time to the music. The shawl is folded over the arm and is in harmony with the motion of the body to the drumbeat. The dancer’s dress varies according to tribe and expression of the individual. The intricate ribbon and beadwork designs are decorated to add to the regalia, often complimented by a long necklace made of tubular beads. The cloth leggings and moccasins are beaded in symbolic designs.

Ladies’ Traditional Buckskin Dance Once for princesses and ladies in leadership roles, the Ladies’ Traditional Buckskin Dance is now open to all ladies. The northern dancer usually stays in one area, lightly bouncing to the beat of the drum, displaying dignity and grace, while the southern style is slower but still as elegant. During the song, the dancer salutes the drum with her fan in a beautiful expression -- “the catching of the spirit of the drum.”116

Originally, female dancers remained in the background or on the perimeter of the dance arena. With this in mind it is easy to understand their more subdued movements. As they remain relatively stationary, the knees are bent in time with the drum, creating a slow, graceful up and down movement of the body, shifting the feet slightly and turning. Like northern traditions, this symbolizes women gazing into the distance, looking for their warriors to return home. From earliest times, dresses were decorated with natural materials, bones, shells, elk's teeth, quills, dentallium shells and natural paints.

In the 1800's, with the acquisition of beads from traders, women would often spend a winter or two beading the entire top of their dresses. Most traditional women dancers also may carry a fan of eagle, hawk, or other feathers, a purse, and a shawl. The colors and designs of the regalia have special symbolic meaning

116 http://www.powersource.com/gallery/objects/dance.html Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 122

pertaining to clans, family position, or tribal traditions. Traditional women wearing cloth regalia are more readily identifiable as to tribe, as each tribe has maintained a specific style of cloth dress. At certain points during the song, a woman may raise her fan, either upon hearing a word or phrase or during the honor beats. The dance is one that demonstrates the strength, status, and beauty of women. In competitions, judges will be looking for gracefulness, stature, poise, and overall presentation.

Let’s make sure we know the difference between drumming styles. A Northern Style drum is a drum group which sings in the style of the Northern Plains tribes such as the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, Crow, Blackfoot and Cree. Northern Style Pow Wow music typically has very high-pitched singing and a fast beat. Note that members of Northern Style drums are not always from northern tribes. For instance, there are excellent Northern Style drums which are made up of drummers from the (a Southwest tribe).

A Southern Style drum group sings in the style of the Southern Plains tribes such as the Ponca and Kiowa. Southern Style Pow Wow music is typically sung in a lower pitch and slower beat than Northern style music and is somewhat more reserved.

Many southern Pow Wows have at least one Northern Drum group in addition to Southern Drums. In competitive Pow Wows, traditional contestants will receive two songs per competitive session. The current trend is to have a straight War Dance song and a Crow Hop song, whereas in the 1980's the trend was to do one straight War Dance song and a Sneak-up.

Oklahoma Tribes The number of Indian nations that coexist in Oklahoma, each with their variety of cultural and musical traditions, is staggering. The major tribes are:

Alabama One of the tribes of the Creek Confederacy (Alabama), part of which accompanied the Creeks to Oklahoma early in the nineteenth century. Apache In addition to the Apache relocated from New Mexico, this name was applied to a group of tribes: Jicarilla (Colorado), Kiowa Apache (Kansas), and Lipan (Texas). Apalachee A small number were relocated from Alabama, Louisiana, and possibly Florida. Arapaho In early times the Arapaho ranged in the western sections of Oklahoma, and part of them (the Southern Arapaho) were finally given a reservation and later allotted land along with the Southern Cheyenne. (Wyoming) Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 123

Biloxi A few Biloxi reached Oklahoma and settled with the and Creeks. (Mississippi) Moved to Oklahoma in 1859 and were given a reservation. Some live in Texas. Cherokee Forced to a large reservation in the northeastern part of Oklahoma in the winter of 1838-39 (trail of tears)). After nearly 70 years of existence under their own tribal government they were allotted and became citizens of the United States. Others live in North Carolina and Tennessee. Cheyenne The history of the Southern Cheyenne parallels that of the Southern Arapaho. Some Cheyenne live in South Dakota in addition to Wyoming. Forced from Mississippi to the present Oklahoma between 1822 and 1840. They had their own government for many years but are now citizens. Choctaw Forced to Oklahoma about the same time as the Chickasaw, though several thousand remained in Mississippi. They also had their own national government for a long time, but are now citizens at large of Oklahoma. Comanche Occupied the western part of Oklahoma and parts of Texas during their later history, and they were finally given a reservation in the southwestern part, and given the privileges of citizenship. Creeks The tribes constituting the Creek Confederacy were relocated from Alabama, Florida, and to Oklahoma between 1836 and 1841 and were given a reservation in the northeastern part, where they maintained a national government until they became citizens. Delaware In 1867 a part of the Delaware (originally from the east coast) were removed from Kansas to the northeastern part of Oklahoma and incorporated with the . Another band of Delaware is with the Caddo and Wichita in southwestern Oklahoma. Fox A few Fox Indians (Wisconsin) accompanied the Sauk to Oklahoma in 1867. A subtribe of the Creek Confederacy. Illinois In 1868 the surviving Illinois Indians, principally Peoria and Kaskaskia, previously united with the bands (Wea and Piankashaw) moved to Northeastern Oklahoma and occupied a reserve under the name Peoria. Iowa Some Iowa were moved from Kansas to central Oklahoma in 1890.

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Iroquois Some Iroquois, Tuscarora, Wyandot, and Indians of the former Erie Nation (New York and Ohio), all under the name of Seneca Indians, were given a reservation in northeastern Oklahoma, where their descendants still live. Jicarilla A.K.A. Apache. Kansa In 1873 the Kansa were moved to a Northeastern Oklahoma reservation. Klchai In very early times this tribe lived near the Red River, but later worked their way south only to later return in 1859. Kickapoo In 1873 some Kickapoo were brought back from Mexico and settled in the central part of Oklahoma. Kiowa and Kiowa Apache These tribes formerly lived in the western part of Oklahoma. Koasati A tribe of the Creek Confederacy (Alabama and Louisiana) removed to northeastern Oklahoma with the rest of the Creeks, settling in the western part of the Creek territory Lipan The easternmost band of Apache; some are with the Tonkawa (Texas). Miami Part of the Miami were brought from Indiana and given a reservation in the extreme northeastern part of Oklahoma along with the Illinois. Mikasuki Accompanied the Seminole (Florida) to Oklahoma. Missouri The remnant of the Missouri came to Oklahoma with the Oto in 1882 and shared their reservation. Modoc In 1873, at the end of the Modoc War (Oregon), part of the tribe was sent to Oklahoma and placed on the Reservation where a few remain. Mukiasa A small Creek division (Alabama) said to have kept its identity in Oklahoma. Munsee A few Munsee () accompanied the Delaware to Oklahoma. Muskogee. This was the name of the principal tribe of the Creeks. Natchez (Mississippi) Accompanied the Creeks to Oklahoma and merged with the Creek population. Another band of Natchez settled in the Cherokee Nation, near the Illinois River, and a few still preserve some of their identity.

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Nez Perce Chief Joseph's band of Nez Perce was sent to Oklahoma in 1878, but they suffered so much from the change of climate that they were transferred to Colville Reservation in 1885. (Idaho) Okmulgee A Creek tribe belonging to the Hitchiti division of the Nation (Georgia). Its name is perpetuated in the city of Okmulgee, former capital of the Creek Nation in Oklahoma. Osage (Missouri) Formerly owned most of northern Oklahoma and after they sold the greater part of it, they retained a large reservation in the northeast. Oto In 1880 a part of the Oto (Nebraska) moved to the lands of the Sauk and Fox Indians in Oklahoma, and in 1882 the rest followed. Ottawa When they surrendered their lands in Michigan and Ohio, some Ottawa bands migrated to Kansas, and about 1868, to Oklahoma, settling in the northeastern part of the State. Pawnee Moved to Oklahoma from Nebraska in 1876 and were given a reservation in the north central part of the State. Peoria (Illinois) Live in northeastern Oklahoma with the Piankashaw and Miami. Ponca In 1877 the Ponca were moved by force to Oklahoma and the greater part settled permanently near the Osage in northeastern Oklahoma. Potawatomi The Potawatomi (Michigan) of the Woodlands were moved to Kansas and later Central Oklahoma in 1867–81. Quapaw Lands were granted to the Quapaw (Arkansas) in the extreme southeastern part of Kansas and the extreme northeastern part of Oklahoma in 1833. In 1867, they ceded all their lands in Kansas and have since confined themselves to Oklahoma though the Osage reservation. Sauk In 1867 the Sauk (Wisconsin) ceded their lands in Kansas in exchange for a tract in the central part of Oklahoma, where they continue to reside. Seminole Most Seminole were removed to Oklahoma from Florida. Seneca, see Iroquois. Shawnee The Shawnee (Tennessee) moved from Kansas to what is now central Oklahoma about 1845; in 1867 the second band, which had been living with the Seneca in Kansas, also moved to Oklahoma but settled in the extreme northeastern part of the State; and in 1869 the third and largest section were removed to the lands of the Cherokee by agreement with that tribe. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 126

Tawakoni. The Tawakoni (also Texas) belonged to the Caddoan linguistic stock and were closely connected with the Wichita; the two languages differing only slightly. Tawehash Researchers suggest that this group was identical with a Wichita band reported to them as Tiwa. They have been given some of the same synonyms as the Wichita. Tonkawa In 1884 the remnant of the Tonkawa were removed to Oklahoma and the next year settled on a reservation near Ponca. A Creek division believed to be connected linguistically with the Alabama Indians, removed to Oklahoma with the other Creeks and established themselves in the northwestern part, Waco Closely related to the Tawakoni of the Wichita group of tribes belonging to the Caddoan Stock. Their first village was where Waco, Texas is today, but their original home was in Oklahoma with the Wichita. Wea, see Miami. Wichita One of the principal tribes of the Caddoan linguistic family. Their earliest known location was on the Canadian River north of the headwaters of the Washita. The subdivisions of the Wichita - the Tawakoni, Waco, Tawehash, and Yscani, independent tribes and treated separately as such. The others— Akwits or Akwesh, Kirikiris, Isis (see Yscani), Tokane (see Yscani), and Itaz—were probably temporary bands. Wyandot In 1867 some of the Wyandot (Ohio) who had been living in Kansas were removed to the northeastern corner of Oklahoma where they remain. It is probable that this body includes more of the old Tionontati tribe than of the true Wyandot. Yscani (Also spelled Ascani, Hyscani, Ixcani) One of the confederated Wichita tribes and related to them in speech, thus of the Caddoan linguistic family. Although originally an independent tribe, the Yuchi (Georgia) united with the Creeks before coming west, and settled in the Creek Nation in the northwestern part of that territory, where their descendants still live.

The Cherokee Traditional Ways The Cherokee call themselves Ani--Yun wiya, the principal (first) people. Although there are many people with Cherokee ancestry all around the world, the total number of citizens of federally recognized Cherokee tribes number more than 288,500. Consider this analogy: a person may have French ancestry, but they are not considered ‘French' unless they are a citizen of France. The Cherokee Nation Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 127

has approximately 260,000 tribal citizens, residing all around the world. Approximately 120,000 of these citizens live within the jurisdictional boundaries of the Cherokee Nation.117 Depending on where one finds the data, the Navajo and Cherokee are nearly identical in terms of population, with the Navajo crossing the 300,000 mark in 2011.118 Those of ; however, number into the millions, so the joke is that everyone is “part Cherokee”.

Originally part of the Great Lakes Iroquois, the Cherokee, after some disagreements with the Iroquois, moved to the southeast around 1300, merging with the tribes that already lived there. Despite the large Cherokee population, little is known about their past cultural practices, mainly because they went through such a rapid transformation in order to adopt the ways of the white people. This period of transformation took place beginning in the 1700's, and they have been labeled as the "first civilized tribe." With this cultural transformation, the old ways of the Cherokee were modified and even discarded.

Fortunately, there is some information available regarding tribal traditions. Pottery, fishing, and basket-making were a large part of life, as well as religious purification rituals. Cherokee basket-making is world famous, as exemplified by Mrs. Lottie Stamper and others.

A singleweave rivercane storage basket made by Lottie Stamper (1907-1987). Learning to make a good basket “meant new clothes and shoes to wear back to school each fall of the year,” Stamper once recalled. Photograph courtesy of Qualla Arts and Crafts Mutual.119

The roles of men were to hunt, fish, build houses, make civic decisions, run religious ceremonies, trade, and to make peace or war. The women were responsible for

117 http://www.cherokeetourismok.com/faq/pages/11.aspx 118 http://navajotimes.com/news/2011/0711/070711census.php 119 http://thereporter.wcu.edu/2009/11/new-book-takes-closer-look-at-baskets-and-their-makers/

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child care, the household, planting duties (farming occurred inside and outside the villages), sharing in council decisions, and deciding the fate of captives. The assemblage of beloved women was present at every war council for the valued contribution of ideas women brought to the table. One can only wonder if the major wars of world history would have even happened if this idea had been universal! When conflicts did occur, women occasionally took part in battles when necessary. The modesty and exceptional beauty of Cherokee women was a topic of many writings of the early white settlers, and many marriages took place, making the saying that “everyone is part-Cherokee” is at least partially true. The traditional family unit was strong, and love and respect for parents was a virtue taught in the Cherokee household.

Contrary to misconceptions, the Cherokee did not live in teepees, but lived in one or two frame houses with mud walls, and gabled roofs. These houses were usually circular. They were made of tree branches bent into a circular shape and then covered with mud and partly sunk into the ground. The houses usually had a stone hearth in the middle for a fire to cook on and keep the house warm.

Cherokee Winter House Replica

Cherokee Summer House Replica

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Some Cherokee people lived in different houses in the summer. The summer houses were bigger, because you didn't have to keep them warm, and they had more windows. Sometimes several related families lived together in the summer house, as when a family rents a house at the beach in the summer.120

Each town had a center where the civic, religious and social matters were addressed, including a common center for feasts. It is known that the Cherokee nation was highly developed by 1600, with the capital centered in a heptagon- shaped building. (The number seven is sacred to the Cherokee). The sacred fire of the nation has burned continually for hundreds of years, and still burns today.

Much of Cherokee life is taken up with religious doings, often referred to as festivals. The traditional Cherokee still celebrate six national festivals and many minor events as well. The national festivals take much time for preparation, and only those who have properly prepared for the festivals may take part. Since most Cherokee prepared and participated, it was no wonder why the Cherokee did not devote much time to war in their traditional society. If a battle was necessary, a number of religious ceremonies were performed before and after an altercation.

The festivals have their roots in the cycle of the seasons, as the Cherokee believe that the constant seasons of nature teaches us that there is no end to existence. As one might expect, music is an integral part of these festivals. Given is a brief description of the religious festivals:

The Great New Moon Feast of Autumn Signifies the beginning of the cycle, but is done at the end of nature's productivity - about ten days after the fall harvest. It is designed to give thanks for the harvest.

The Cementation and Propitiation Ceremony Performed after the Great New Moon Feast, and is represented by two carefully selected men. One represents the Above Being (God), and the other represents the human. During the ceremony, the two men exchange clothes, representing the complete union of God and man as inseparable brothers for life.

The Bounding Bush Festival One of unrestrained joy and thanksgiving for the harvest and any and all other good tidings achieved. It is done right before the advent of winter to prevent overconfidence.

120 http://www.historyforkids.org/learn/northamerica/before1500/architecture/cherokee.htm

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The New Moon Feast Performed in the spring, old fruits from the previous year are brought out and consumed. New fires are kindled, representing the new beginning of the growing season.

The New Green Corn Feast This features a very solemn dance that asks forgiveness for errors (sins), and amnesty for those who have committed sins. People taste the new green corn (the main food staple of many tribes) as proof of hope and assurance for a good harvest.

The Mature Green Corn Feast Celebrated at harvest time, this is one of exultation for the harvest, and is the last festival of the cycle.

Some aspects of the festivals vary from year-to-year to encourage creativity and alleviate boredom. The approach to daily activities with the Cherokee is one of doing what was needed to do, and no more. If it did not have to be done, it could be put off. Consequently, relaxation is an important aspect of , but it is more than that – it is driven by doing what was most important and not worrying about the rest. When something really needs to be done, it is done quickly, and with the help of everyone able. A sense of humor is very important, so in order to prevent ceremonies to become too serious, some kind of joke or prank may be done.

The Cherokee grow two types of corn; a fast-growing corn which grows to four feet and is cut down in May, and a slower-growing crop which grows to ten feet and is harvested late in the autumn. Although not a festival as such, the planting of corn is done in a ceremonial way. The highest priest and seven counselors (again, the sacred number seven) determine the time of planting. Seven grains are scattered in each dirt hill within a planting row. Then the priest smokes the sacred pipe filled with tobacco, shakes the medicine rattle, and sings invocations to the mother of the corn. The priest waits for the wind to rustle the seeds, for her power then brings the seeds to life. No one can raise their heads during this ceremony, performed on four successive nights. After this ceremony, no one may enter the field for seven nights.

Tobacco is grown in Cherokee country, and it is believed that tobacco has no power of its own unless it is properly planted in a traditional ritual, which is done in a secret place where lightning struck some wood during a ceremony a long time ago. If, during the planting ceremony, there is thunder and lightning, it is considered a good omen. In addition to the traditional uses of tobacco mentioned at the beginning of this book, the Cherokee have also used it as a love potion. Also, after harvesting tobacco in the fall season at sunrise, traditionals will take some to the Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 131

bank of a stream and offer sacred prayer, holding the tobacco up to the rays of the sun.

Like most Native American tribes, the world that is called "supernatural" by whites is a natural world for the Cherokee. Healing, communicating with the deceased, shapeshifting (the ability of a person to take an animal form temporarily), and other activities are part of Cherokee tradition.

Relationships with Whites As the Cherokee interacted with the whites, a close and fraternal relationship developed. Cherokee did not fear the whites, and wanted to learn about their ways. Many became less like Indians, using metal tools, guns, and whiskey. Soon there were many mixed blood descendants. It was not uncommon to see mixed blood Cherokees with blonde hair and blue eyes. Soon the whites and mixed bloods began to revise or abandon traditional religious ceremonies. The power of the capital declined and the old traditional ways seemed to be counter-productive to many Cherokee. Once completely independent, the Cherokee became more dependent on trade with whites for survival. The concept of trade became one based on currency, and all hunting, fishing, and livestock development became subject to governmental regulations. Forests disappeared rapidly, and mining of ores denuded large segments of land. "Civilization" was in full "advancement."

As the French, Spanish, and English vied for power in the U.S., it was difficult for the Cherokee to know whom to trust. Spanish influence faded, and the English and French would encourage disputes among the Cherokee to keep them weak. As the 18th century developed into a power struggle between the British and the newly formed U.S., the Cherokee's decision that it was best to side with the British in a treaty of friendship (signed in 1763) proved to be a fatal flaw. After the Revolutionary War, most Cherokees fled to northern Georgia to escape the wrath of the Americans.

There was never a full scale war to speak of with the Cherokee. They tended to avoid conflict if there was a way to work things out peacefully, and there was a growing communal influence of mixed bloods. Presbyterian, Baptist, Methodist, and Quaker missionaries led to a very high number of Cherokees who converted to Christianity. The practice of the six religious festivals was reduced to two, with the Green Corn Festival and the Great New Moon Feast surviving. In 1808, laws were enacted to change gender roles to the patriarchal concept of the whites, which identified the male as the dominant producer in society, eliminating many rights (such as property and voting rights) Cherokee women had previously enjoyed.

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The Cherokee set up a Republican (non-aristocratic) Government in 1827 which is patterned after the Iroquois Governmental structure that the U.S. government followed in setting up the Presidency and its Congress. The first president (principal chief) of the Cherokee nation was John Ross, a mixed blood. A Cherokee alphabet (syllabic) was developed by a.k.a. George Guess, (1771-1843), who was the first to set a tribal language steeped in oral tradition into a written language. By 1828 the first newspaper was in operation.

If one were to view transformation to white ways as "progress", then the Cherokee achieved this more than any other tribe. The positive results prove the value of collaboration over killing, of communication and interaction over isolation and destruction. The less positive results were the loss of traditional cultural values by the Cherokee. How different U.S. history might have been if the same amount of interaction would have occurred with other tribal nations.

As the government of the Cherokee formed and a tribal newspaper was circulated, the whites saw this as a threat to the U.S. and to the immediate geographical areas of northern Georgia and the Carolinas. The new Cherokee government, run by mixed bloods, was also rejected by the more traditional full bloods, who resented the large-scale white influences. A bitter lesson was to be learned by the mixed bloods, for to the whites, an Indian was an Indian, no matter how small the percentage of blood was. In the 1830's some whites began to call for the removal of the Cherokee. The Cherokee Memorial to the United States Congress of December 29, 1835 reads:

In truth, our cause is your own. It is the cause of liberty and of justice. It is based upon your own principles, which we have learned from yourselves; for we have gloried to count your Washington and your Jefferson our great teachers . . . We have practised {sic} their precepts with success. And the result is manifest. The wilderness of forest has given place to comfortable dwellings and cultivated fields ... Mental culture, industrial habits, and domestic enjoyments, have succeeded the rudeness of the savage state. We have learned your religion also. We have read your sacred books. Hundreds of our people have embraced their doctrines, practised the virtues they teach, cherished the hopes they awaken…we speak to the representatives of a Christian country; the friends of justice; the patrons of the oppressed. And our hopes revive, and our prospects brighten, as we indulge the thought. On your sentence our fate is suspended . . . On your kindness, on your humanity, on your compassions, on your benevolence, we rest our hopes. . . 121

President Andrew Jackson, with his decidedly anti-Indian sentiment, turned against a Supreme Court decision protecting the Cherokee, and ordered the military to

121 Source unknown at this time, p. 417. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 133

round up 16,000 Cherokee, Creek, and Choctaw people and march them in the winter of 1838 to the Oklahoma Territory. Many were taken without proper clothing, shoes, or food, and over 4,000 perished along the way, many in "holding pens," makeshift outdoor prisons created when the military stopped to rest. This removal, now called the "Trail of Tears", is considered to be one of the most shameful events in our U.S. history. This event has been virtually ignored in U.S. history books. Two songs documenting the Trail of Tears in a contemporary format were done by John Denver and the Indigo Girls. The picture of Andrew Jackson remains on the U.S. twenty dollar bill today, and was even enlarged in 2003.

The Cherokee Today Around the time of the Trail of Tears, over 1,000 Cherokee, mostly full bloods, escaped to northwestern North Carolina, and became the nucleus of the eastern Cherokee Nation today. There, a semblance of ancient ways remains, mixed with Christianity. Although the religious festivals were terminated, some of the dances have survived. In Oklahoma, disputes existed between mixed and full bloods over how much of the white culture to incorporate.

Tahlequah, Oklahoma became the capital of the western Cherokee nation. It was there in 1843 that Chief John Ross called for a tribal council of friendship between the Cherokees and their new neighbors in the southern plains. It is also where the sacred fire of the Cherokee nation burns, kept alive even during the forced journey to Oklahoma. Sequoyah fled Oklahoma to the southwest and disappeared, dying in Mexico around 1845. Given is the seal of the Cherokee Nation West:

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This seal, designed to embrace the early governmental structure and the eternal endurance of the Cherokee Indians, was adopted by Act of the Cherokee National Council, and approved in 1871. The seven-pointed star symbolizes: (1) The seven age- old clans of the Cherokees: Deer, Wolf, Bird, Blind Savannah, Holly, Long Hair, and Paint. (2) The seven characters of Sequoyah's syllabary, meaning "Cherokee Nation." (The Cherokee characters are phonetically pronounced "Tsa-la-gi-hi A-yi-li.")

The wreath of oak leaves symbolizes the sacred fire which, from time immemorial, the Cherokees kept burning in their land…the margin wording proclaims the authority of the seal in both the English and the Cherokee languages, and records the date (1839) of the adoption of the Constitution of the Cherokee Nation West. This seal was imprinted on all documents until the dissolution of the Cherokee Nation at Oklahoma Statehood.122

There is no question that some of the traditional practices still remain, particularly with medicine men, but it is no wonder that the sharing of these practices with whites may be restricted to only those whites who earn the rights to this information through a sincere and sustained inquiry. One of the Cherokee traditions centers on treating illnesses by removing their source, which is in the mind. If the mind is not well, physical ailments are far more likely to develop.

122 http://www.fivecivilizedtribes.org/FiveTribes/Cherokee/CherokeeSeal/tabid/278/Default.aspx Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 135

Music and Dance of the Cherokee The traditional musical instruments of the Cherokee consist of…

Water Drum (Iroquois)

…the water drum, made from a section of hollowed log, earthen pot or kettle with a skin stretched over the top of it. An inch or so of water or other liquid is placed inside before playing.

…the River Cane flute, which in 1835 was reported to have been approximately one foot long, and had 6 holes.

…trumpets were sometimes made from buffalo horns, and sometimes from long neck gourds or the thigh bone of the crane.

…Conch shells were used in very early times.

…turtle shells are used for ceremonial rattles; a single rattle to be held in the hand for use by men, and turtle shell shackles worn on the legs of women. Sometimes the ceremonial hand rattles are made of gourd.

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Traditionally, these rattles are tied behind the right knee of the dancer during ceremonies. The deer foot represents swiftness and the turtle longetivy. This is wrapped by deerskin leather and decorated with fur, horsehair, feathers, and beads.123

Music and song is not a human invention but rather something that is given to the composer from the Creator or by (deity) spirits to facilitate interaction between the heavens and earth. Music is judged on its spiritual power; if a song is well performed, it is referred to as "good" rather than beautiful. In the old days, men predominated in composing, singing, and writing the lyrics for the songs, but that has changed somewhat.

Cherokee regularly hold their ancient ceremonies outdoors around the sacred fires throughout eastern and central Oklahoma. Recordings are not allowed at religious dances, so tapes are recorded at a practice ground. For example, recordings from Songs and Dances from Medicine Spring involve a crockery water drum, a coconut shell hand rattle, and terrapin shell leg rattles worn by the women dancers. Traditionally, vocals are usually done in a comfortable range and are right "in sync" with drums and/or rattles, in contrast to the Northern Plains style. However, in Oklahoma especially, the Northern Plains style of singing higher and not necessarily being in sync with the drums or rattle has caught on. Many of these field recordings of early Native American music were essentially done on small portable recorders, and the quality of those recordings is less than desirable. Also, the group leader to sing a song was not always the “best singer” but an honored member of the tribe who had been awarded the privilege of starting the song.

The Long Dance is a prayer that asks the Creator for a blessing to give the participants the strength to live correctly and to dance all night. The dance begins some distance from the dance area with shouting back and forth between a leader and a chorus. When the leg rattles begin the "double shake", the dancers enter the

123 http://www.cherokeevisions.com/rattles.html

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area around the sacred fire and begin to dance counterclockwise. This song is always concluded with a .

A number of songs employ call-response techniques and improvisation by the lead vocalist, such as in the Stomp Dance Songs. Stomp Dance songs incorporate some African American musical influence from runaway slaves in the old days. The "swing" or "time feel" has distinct African American influences, and is not found in other Native American music.124 The Stomp Dance is the most common song form used by the Cherokee and Creek singers in Oklahoma. The leader controls the responsorial singing, choosing from the many songs he knows, improvising each song as he sees fit, stringing them together one after another, and interspersing them with shouts as structural markers. The songs are usually done to give thanks for something and are sung by men only, but women participate in the dancing. It ends with the Cherokee or Creek words for "thank you," wado or mado respectively.

The Dance features two leaders, each heading a group of dancers. Starting on opposite sides of the fire, they dance in intricate patterns – moving forward, back-wards, and in circles. The song itself is simple and relaxed enough to allow the participants to focus on the dance. Some use only vocables. The Bean Dance is a set of songs remembered by a leader, and is followed in unison by the other singers. A set of shorter responses may occur, and then the dance is concluded with a Stomp Dance.

In the Booger Dance, the Cherokees use masks, which represented people from far away, or people across the water. The name came from the English word "bogey", meaning ghosts or frightful animals. The dress was as grotesque as possible. Some dancers represented hunters carrying bows and arrows, guns, or clubs. They depicted everything Cherokee abhorred, supposedly weakening the harmful powers of other tribes. Besides being one of humor, it also represented terrible things that had happened since the arrival of the "strangers."

124 Laubin, 97. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 138

Red Clay Reservation, (Eastern Cherokee) Delaware.125 With social dances, everyone is welcome to join in the fun, and need not be in traditional regalia.

Naturally, Cherokee are immersed in all genres of current music. Litefoot, a registered member of the Cherokee and winner of a Native American Music award, was one of the first Native Americans to rap with hip-hop backgrounds.

Litefoot126

125http://s224.photobucket.com/albums/dd102/dennyha11/cherokee/?action=view¤t=Cheok ee20Dance20Red20Clay20S_P_20T.jpg&sort=ascending 126 http://www.centerwest.org/projects/past/listening/litefoot.html

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He has grown from musical beginnings in Oklahoma to becoming an internationally known film and television actor starring in several feature films roles such as, The Indian in the Cupboard, Adaptation and Mortal Kombat, Annihilation. He has also appeared on the television programs: C.S.I. Miami, Family Law and Any Day Now. Litefoot’s CD "Native American Me" (Red Vinyl) was nominated for Artist of the Year at the Native American Music Awards 2004. Another well-known Cherokee/Comanche musician who plays Native American flute and rock is Micki Free.

The Hopi The Hopi are part of the peoples of the southwest. The Spanish name pueblo (meaning “village” or “group of people”) was applied because what they called themselves remains unknown. The ancestors to the Hopi were called the Anasazi – a.k.a. the ancient ones, but the original meaning is insulting to the Hopi, as it was a derogatory term made by enemies of the Hopi. Images of Hopi ceremonies have been traced back to ancient pictographs on caves, which go back as early as 200 a.d.

Pictographs near Moab, Utah.127

As time went on, the Hopi arrived around 1000 a.d., and eventually became less nomadic and established farming communities. They lived as cave dwellers in recessed pithouses in Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, and Colorado. The stone and timber houses where these are located are practically inaccessible, but they were excellent protection against the Ute, Navajo, and Apache. Climbing dangerous

127 http://www.discovermoab.com/rockart.htm

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cliffs were necessary to get water, food, hunt, and to grow crops. The caves are typically cold and damp in the winter, and difficult for children and the elderly to get to.

The Hopi were known as fine basket makers, potters, hunters, and excellent weavers. Typically a peaceful people, they survived in a harsh, arid environment. A migration to northeastern Arizona and western New Mexico occurred around 1300 A.D. Since the time of Columbus, they were subjected to atrocities from the Spanish, Mexicans, and the U.S. Drought, disease, and wars reduced their population to a meager 2,000 by 1891.

Considering the extreme difficulties endured by the Hopi, it is not surprising that they devoted much of their lives to religious ceremonies. Although Catholic missionaries attempted to convert them, the Hopi did not adapt to Christianity, and have resisted conversion despite the abuses of the reservation schools in the first half of the twentieth century. In 1887, the reservation schools (run by whites) adopted very strict policies. Attendance was mandatory, and the long hair, sacred to the as a part of their soul, was cut very short. They were not allowed to speak their language, practice their religion, or dance or sing their songs. One comment written about the Hopi Ceremonial Dances typifies sentiment in the “bad old days”:

The great evils in the way of their ultimate civilization lie in these dances. The dark superstitions and unhallowed rites of a heathenism as gross as that of India or Central Africa still infects them with its insidious poison. –J.H. Fleming, Indian Agent to the Hopi-128

Thus, the Hopi lived a double life, one for the whites at the schools, and one in their traditional community whenever possible. Children were taught the ancient ceremonies with every possible detail remembered through the oral tradition. Consequently, the Hopi have had a high retention of their ceremonies for hundreds of years, perhaps more than any tribe in the U.S. Typically, up to sixteen days a month are spent in religious observance, which require physical and mental participation. In the Hopi community, elders are revered, and never "retired" from active service.

128 http://www.nativeamericannetroots.net/diary/1202/the-hopi-reservation

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129 The Hopi live on top of and around three Mesas (a high plateau or tableland with steep sides) in the arid highlands of northern Arizona. The Mesas and the villages are:

First Mesa - The traditional villages on First Mesa are Walpi, Sichomovi, and Hano. The community below First Mesa is Pollacca. Keams Canyon is located a few miles east of First Mesa.

Second Mesa - The traditional villages located on Second Mesa are Sipaulovi, Mishongnovi, and Shongopavi. The Hopi Cultural Center and Hotel is located on this Mesa.

Third Mesa - As you approach Third Mesa, you will see Kykotsmovi, the seat of the Hopi Tribal Government. The traditional villages on Third Mesa are Old Oraibi, Hotevilla and Bacavi. Then, 45 miles to the west near Tuba City, is the Hopi village of Moencopi.

129 Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 142

The oldest continuously inhabited village in the United States is Old Oraibi. This village, located on top of Third Mesa, came into being around 1050 A.D. as the Hopi came to this area.130

Hopi Religion, Music, and Ceremonies For religious ceremonies, underground kivas (shelters) were dug.

Outside view of False Kiva131

To enter the kiva was to enter the womb of Mother Earth.

130 www.hopi.org/about_the_hopi.htm 131 http://www.stephenoachs.com/arches-canyonlands-utah.php

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Designed with a fire pit in the middle, the shaft to the right is an air vent. The escaping heat from the fire created a vacuum, drawing in fresh air through the vent. The short rock wall was a barrier to divert the fresh air; otherwise a comfortable and safe kiva would quickly become an uncomfortable, unsafe kiva because, well, it would be totally ON FIRE!132

Life for the Hopi is centered on the natural cycle, and the need for water in an arid climate. To the Hopi, the universe has no beginning and no end. If one died they went to the underworld which was not hell, but a place where life was similar to that on Earth. The Hopis looked to the Above Beings for guidance - deities that watched over every aspect of life. The Hopi had high faith in the Above Beings; so much so that a miracle would be defined as when something did not occur that was prayed for. The expectation was that their prayers would be answered. Nature and the Creator was of one mind and purpose – so if the Earth was abused it would be the same as abusing the Creator. Hopis believe the soul is the breath of the body, and that death is merely a pivotal point of existence – a change in stature. All things animate and inanimate have individuality and are related to all other phenomena.

When the Hopi emerged from the underworld, they brought with them a large number of living spiritual beings called katcinas (kachinas).

132 http://www.stephenoachs.com/arches-canyonlands-utah.php

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A collection of Katcinas133

Two beliefs about the origin of the katcinas are:

1. The Hopi were attacked by invaders, so the spirits of the katcinas returned to the underworld, but the Hopi impersonate them through masks and outfits, so that blessings, such as rain, well being, healing, and fertility will occur.

2. The loss of the katcinas occurred when people took the blessings bestowed upon them for granted, so a few Hopi were taught how to perform some ceremonies as long as they were done correctly and with a good heart. Then, real katcinas would come and take possession of those who wore the katcina masks. In that way Katcinas carried messages to and from deities. Over 240 katcinas are personified today.

With the Hopi, the welfare of the entire community came before the individual. The Hopi believed in the power of the group to make collaborative decisions. One of the goals of humans is to learn how to fulfill their purpose on this planet.

133 http://members.aol.com/_ht_a/jbozung/km100k.htm

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As one might expect, many songs revolve around prayers for rain and good crops. The rain ceremony of the Hopi is of prime importance, and is quite elaborate, using hundreds of dancers at times. The Hopi Snake Dance is particularly famous, while war dances in the Hopi and Pima-Papago are absent, as killing is considered criminal.134

Songs are sung in what is considered a “normal” voice range, meaning that they are considerably lower in pitch than that of the northern plains tribes. On some songs, drumbeats are steady, but on other songs, drumbeats will follow the syllables of the words, which is in contrast to the steady pulse of the Northern Plains. It is impossible to properly dance to those songs unless the words and their rhythms are known. As in the north, some songs are language songs, and others contain language and vocables. Some songs are all vocables to accommodate intertribal songs. Bullroarers (mentioned earlier in the book) are used in the southwest – the Hopis regard the bullroarer as the prayer stick of thunder, while the Navajos and Apaches use the bullroarer as well. 135

Flute Ceremony at Michongnovi.136

The Hopis place a high value on their ceremonies to ensure the success of their crops. The Flute Ceremony is performed to ensure that rain will come so that the crops will reach maturity. The ceremony takes place in August, and is done in each village alternately with the Snake Dance, so that one year the Flute Ceremony is

134 Driver, 204. 135 Laubin, p. 111. 136 www.gutenberg.org/files/15888/15888-h/15888-h.htm Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 146

done at that village, and the next year the Snake Dance is done. The Flute Ceremony lasts up to sixteen days. Either the Blue Flute or Gray Flute Society performs the Flute Ceremony. After private ceremonies and initiations for new members are completed, the public ceremony begins the blessing of the village spring and the flute race. The winner receives the prize at the house of the head of the Blue Flute Society. After the race there is a procession to the dance area lead by the Gray Flute Society followed by the Blue Flute Society. Each group is led by a priest and two Flute Maidens who carry small reed rings on slender rods. The leader of the procession draws a on the ground with corn meal and the Flute Maidens toss the small reed rings on them. Another purpose of the ceremony is to remember the migrations of the Hopis, and to commemorate the creation of the sun and the emergence of the Hopis from the underworld. Prayers and songs are sung, and the Blue Flute Society leader, who has been in seclusion singing songs and saying prayers, emerges toward the conclusion of the ceremony. The flute is used to imitate the sound of locusts, and this sound is associated with summer, in hopes of a longer growing season.

Kokopelli is the Hopi God of Music & Fertility who goes from one Hopi clan to the next, playing his flute for them. It is believed that when he plays in cold weather, it diminishes the winter and creates warm breezes. If Kokopelli comes to the Snake Dance, then the tribe will awaken the next morning to an abundant harvest. He is also said to help make grass greener, for the birds to sing, and bring rain during drought. Children honor the presence of Kokopelli. The female counterpart to Kokopelli is called Kokopelli Mana.137

137 http://www.brownielocks.com/fluteceremony.html

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Hopi Snake Dance

The Snake Dance/Snake Ceremony is one of the major dances of the Hopi people. The ceremony is performed in hopes that plentiful rain will come so that the grass will grow, which is good for game and livestock. The Snake Ceremony is done every other year, alternated with the Flute Dance. The snakes (non-poisonous and poisonous) are gathered and placed in a special kiva. When it is time for the dance, the snakes are brought to the plaza in two separate bags - the poisonous snakes in one, and the non-poisonous ones in another. After the snakes are placed properly, the Snake Priests enter, wearing a turtle shell rattle below their right knee. There is also a whipper and catcher accompanying the priest. The Snake Priest is presented with a snake. The priest holds the snake in his hands, then places the snake around his neck, and finally places the snake in his mouth. The whipper dances behind the Snake Priest, calming the snake with a feather and to uncoil the snake, since it is less dangerous when it is uncoiled. Each snake is danced around the plaza a total of four times. After all the snakes have been danced with, they are tossed aside and the catcher picks them up. The catcher holds all the snakes until the dance has been completed. He then tosses the snakes into the circle. The Snake Priests run into the circle and grab as many snakes as they can. They run to trails outside the village and set the snakes free. It is hoped that the snakes will give messages to people in the underworld (where the dead ancestors are, not hell). This dance is also done with Antelope Priests, except they spread corn meal on a board and around the snakes. As always, no recordings or pictures are allowed. After the ceremony is completed, rain is sure to come.

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Hopi Butterfly Dance

This painting by Fred Kabotie depicts a performance of the traditional Hopi Butterfly dance. This dance was not important in a ceremonial sense; instead it is known as a pastime dance. These dances were simply social and did not have the deep significance of dances such as the Snake dance. The Butterfly dance was performed in the late summer.138

By keeping a high retention of their spiritual ceremonies, the Hopis and Navajo have succeeded in maintaining more traditional ways compared to eastern tribes that mixed with the whites. Unfortunately, due to past reservation abuses, fear, and suspicion, these tribes are also prone to sharing very little about their ceremonial traditions outside of the tribe, including the meaning of song lyrics.

The Dine (Navajo) Dine is the Navajo word for "the people" and is what they prefer to call themselves. The name "Navajo" came from Spanish or Pueblo , and meanings have ranged from "thieves", "raiders", or “knife” to "people with large planted fields". The Navajo Nation extends into the states of Utah, Arizona and New Mexico, covering over 27,000 square miles. Diné Bikéyah, or Navajoland, is larger than 10 of the 50 states in America. 139 As mentioned previously, there are just over 300,000 Navajo today.

In the 19th century, the Navajo persistently raided the villages of the Pueblo Indians as well as those of the Spanish and later the Mexican colonists. After the Anglo-Americans took possession of the southwest, the raids continued until 1863, when most of the Navajo were rounded up by militiamen under Colonel Kit Carson and sent to detention for four years at Fort Sumner, New Mexico. In 1868 a

138 encarta.msn.com/.../hopi_butterfly_dance.html 139 http://www.navajo.org/history.htm

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treaty was concluded with the Navajo when they agreed to settle on a reservation in their former homeland. At that time they numbered about 9,000.

The Navajo Tribal Council was founded in 1923 in order for tribal members to deal collectively with the whites. Traditionally, the Navajo had no centralized tribal government. Originally, nomadic bands had two leaders; one for war and one for peace. Visitors from around the world are intrigued and mystified when they hear the , and during World War II the relatively unknown Navajo language was used to create a secret code to confuse the Japanese. Navajo men were selected to create codes and serve on the front line to overcome and deceive those on the other side of the battlefield. These are known as the famous Navajo Code Talkers, who exemplify the unequaled bravery and patriotism of the Navajo.

The Navajo subsisted through hunting and gathering of wild plant foods. They later adopted techniques of dry farming (without irrigation) and raised maize, , squash, and melons. Livestock and sheep also became important in their economy.

At present the Navajo face persistent economic problems in their arid homeland. The population continues to increase rapidly, despite rates of infant and child mortality that remains disproportionately high compared with national figures. Their subsistence economy continues to be based on agriculture, with almost every reservation family raising at least part of its food. In recent years sheep-raising has been reduced because of the serious deterioration of the Navajo grasslands through overgrazing and erosion. Arts, crafts, weaving, and silversmithing are minor sources of income, but the Navajo have become increasingly reliant on wage employment. The discovery of natural gas, uranium, and other minerals has helped to provide new sources of tribal income, but the Navajo are still among the poorest Native American groups in the U.S.

The Navajo, like the Hopi, possess one of the most preserved Native American cultures in North America. Their social structure is based on bonds of kinship, with descent traced through the mother. The extended family is very important, and members usually live near each other and help each other with building houses, farming, and herding. In the traditional Navajo world view, the universe is believed to contain hostile as well as friendly forces. If the universal harmony is disturbed, illness, death, or other disasters may result. The Navajo believe that all illness, physical or mental, has supernatural causes, which can only be ascertained by a rite of divination. To create a cure for an illness, the doctor, priest, or singer (hatali) prescribes one of many Navajo chants; in addition, the patient is often placed during the curing ceremony on an elaborate and beautifully colored sand painting. Other Navajo ceremonies involve the ritual consumption of peyote, to be discussed later. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 150

The traditional Navajo dwelling is the Hogan, usually six-or eight-sided, constructed of logs, and covered with earth.

140

An important Navajo craft is the weaving of fine rugs, learned from the Pueblo by 1700 and traditionally performed on upright looms by women. Also important is silversmithing. Learned in the 19th century from Mexican silversmiths, there are beautifully worked silver items as well as turquoise jewelry often decorated with squash blossom symbols.

Navajo Religion, Music, and Ceremonies Among the Navajo, there are actually semiprofessional singers, and groups are formed for specific ceremonies,. A young Navajo singer pays a tuition fee to the older singer who teaches him the text and music of one of the longer ceremonial song cycles as well as all the accompanying ceremonial protocol and traditions. To learn and be able to perform several such cycles is the accomplishment of a lifetime.141 Medicine men create the beautiful sand paintings the Navajo are known for, and songs accompany the ceremonies. The sand painting absorbs the evil of the sickness, therefore must be destroyed at the end of the ceremony, dissolving the sickness with it.

140 http://navajopeople.org/navajo-hogans.htm 141 Driver, 203. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 151

Navajo Sand Painting142

In Navajo culture music and religion are intertwined. Navajo thought recognizes art as a means of relating to spiritual beings that exist in the natural and supernatural worlds. Songs are intended to affect the weather, cure the sick, and influence the forces of the universe. Even the gambling songs of the Navajo are used to contact spiritual power.

Traditional music is derived from about thirty different ceremonies that reenact the Navajo creation stories, which are related to maintain a balance between individuals and the universe. The clans of the southwest use many tightly-run religious ceremonies where songs are organized into sets. Songs that go with the ceremonies contain thousands of lines and often last several days, and are designed to cure specific illnesses. There are, of course songs for humor, for children, games, and social and religious dance songs.

A Navajo considers his wealth according to the number of songs he knows and has created. A Navajo who has no songs is poor indeed! Whether religious or not,

142 http://miscellaneous-pics.blogspot.com/2010/11/navajo-sand-painting.html Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 152

there are songs for virtually every occasion. There are many functional, secular songs for nearly every activity whether to greet the sun in the morning, say farewell to it in the evening, to ride a horse with, to plant; etc. The songs of ceremonial function are known for their power.

One ceremony, the Enemy Way, was originally done in the summer months, and is done to purify a Navajo warrior returning from a battle who is bothered by the memory of a deceased non-Navajo. There are many ceremonies, songs and dances that belong to this, as it is one of the most sacred ceremonies to the Navajo.

The Navajos and the Apaches are linguistic relatives. Song texts can be with vocables, the Navajo language, or both. A fair number of songs will have one syallble per drum beat, giving it a chant-like quality. Here is another reason for the use of vocables: it is likely that many of the songs were sung in vocables when whites were present, so that the meanings of the songs could not be known, and the words could not be "stolen". Today, songs in English also are sung along with Navajo in the social dance songs. Like the plains tribes, language texts and vocable texts are often interspersed. Musical forms usually follow a chorus-verse-chorus alternation. Paired phrases are common.

Songs are for solo singers or for a group of singers. Newer songs even use harmony. While songs are performed mainly by men who sing with a nasal vocal quality, there are also many women's songs. Men’s songs are sung in a normal voice range, but others can be in a fairly high range, and some are in a VERY high range. Other songs go from a low range to a very high range and back. Yet other songs, as in the plains, begin high and descend downward. Depending on the style of the singer, some songs will have no vibrato or wavering of pitch, but other men’s and women’s songs will have a substantial vibrato or pitch wavering that resembles what is done in the Middle East or India. More recent recordings have women singing along with the men as well.

Some songs use drums, and others use vocals with no drums. Contrary to , Navajos use steady drumbeats as opposed to changing drumbeats to match the rhythm of word syllables. Drums used are clay water drums made from a clay vessel with an open end. Water is placed inside the vessel, and the end of the vessel is covered with a thin tanned deerskin or goat skin. The drummer has only to turn the drum upside down to wet the skin. A thin, tight, wet skin produces a high- pitched sound.

The public social dances serve as either part of a particular ceremony, as entertainment, or as a means for unmarried men and women to meet and socialize. In the social dance songs, the lyrics are often humorous, and mention aspects of Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 153

male-female relationships. The two-step and skip dances are the most popular. Two steps tend to flow more with the lyrics than the skip dances. The two-step song is accompanied by a single beat that follows the pulse of the song, whereas a double beat is used for the skip dance (that’s two beats on the drum per single step by the dancer).

New songs are composed every year, and the learning of new songs take a lot of time. New songs are presented as part of the public dances. Prior to an Enemy Way ceremony, composers will summon friends and relatives to teach them the new songs. During three nights of public dancing, the songs are performed. These songs are regarded as popular traditional music. Songs of this category either become favorites or they are soon discarded.143

"Song and Dance" is a social event which is held most weekends in one or more communities within the Navajo Nation. Navajo people attend these events to celebrate and enjoy fellowship through song and dance. At many of the events, contests are held in categories representing the different styles of Navajo dance, creativity in musical composition, and style of dress. In the early days of Song and Dance, songs were taken mainly from the Enemy Way ceremony. This caused controversy among the Navajo. Critics argue that "Song and Dance" was secularizing Navajo religion. And, since the Enemy Way ceremony is performed only when Thunder is awake (spring through early fall) once Thunder sleeps, the songs should not be performed.

In order to continue Song and Dance, singers began to create their own songs rather than take them from a ceremony and, so as not to compete with the Enemy Way, most songs and dances were switched to the winter. This is a perfect example of the Navajo view of art and religion. There is no separate word for “art” or “religion” in the Navajo language because both are a vital part of being alive. To Navajos, the sacred, the artistic and the social are so closely associated with each other that they are viewed as one. Sharing is the Navajo way and Song and Dance is no different. Other Indians and non-Indians are encouraged to participate in the dancing. To join the circle of dancers is to feel the energy of the people.

The Song and Dance has even been taken on the road by a number of performers. These people had never been to the reservation so we brought the reservation to them." Greyeyes (one of the Todineshzhee Singers from the Navajo nation) said:

We would sing songs, demonstrate dancing and then explain the songs and dancing. The audiences loved it. It is important for people to understand the origins and

143 Sements of the last 4 paragraphs are liner notes from "Native American Traditions: Music of New Mexico". Smithsonian Folkways CD SF 40408, pp. 6-8. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 154

even the stories behind our songs. And it's important for us to exhibit our culture with respect. In order to preserve our culture we have to practice it. Navajo Song and Dance is the perfect antithesis to the view that all Indians are alike. In a Pow Wow, the drum provides the heavy beat to the songs. Navajo songs are like ballads - the drum is soft. Their dancing is also different. Where the Pow Wow is judged by how well a dancer moves to the beat of the drum, a Navajo dance is judged by how conservatively a dancer keeps in step with the song. Despite much adversity, the Navajo are proud of their culture and their language. In the simplest terms, "Song and Dance" is a celebration of being Navajo.144

Nothing depicts the American Indian better than his love for dancing. The traditional Song and Dance and intertribal Pow Wows are only some of the many aspects in which the Navajo Nation continues its cultural tradition. Most social events held in Navajoland are held mainly for pleasure and outsiders are welcome to attend.145

In addition to traditional music, contemporary covers all the genres of today’s music from heavy metal to hip hop to country. Some popular bands are: Blackfire, Ethnic De Generation, Downplay, Mother Earth Blues Band, Tribal Live and Tribe II Entertainment. Rappers who can rap in their native toungue are Mistic, Rollin, Lil' Spade, and Shade.

144 The last 3 paragraphs are taken from segments of Monty Roessel, "Song and Dance, Navajo Style". Inside Arts, 1995, pp. 38-9. 145 http://www.crystalinks.com/navajos.html

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The Nde (Apache) The name Apache is from a Zuni Indian word meaning "enemy", so it is important to know that the Apache call themselves, Inde, or Nde, meaning "the people". In the past, the Apache have always been portrayed as "brutal savages", with their only redeeming qualities being craftiness and endurance. Broken , starring Jimmy Stewart, is the only older movie to portray the Apache as having any human quality at all! It is quite difficult to erase the myth that Apaches were bloodthirsty "savages", probably because of the numerous stories about the bravery and tenacity of Geronimo and his warriors, yet written reports from the Spanish stated that "They are a kind people and not cruel. They are faithful friends."146 Only recently; however, have movies about Native Americans begun to focus away from the Indian wars and more on cultural values.

Although a well known tribe in war, there were never more than 12,000 Apaches before the twentieth century. As of 2000, there are over 30,000 Apaches. They have been associated with the desert, but the Apache typically preferred to live in the mountains and to hunt in the desert, as well as to gather cactus fruits and other wild plants. Essentially, the Apache and Navajo could understand each other, but did not get along well. Intermarriage was discouraged, even between the different Apache tribes, of which there are six branches:

Western Apache (Coyotero of eastern Arizona) included White Mountain, Cibuecue, San Carlos, northern and southern Tonto (no relation to the Lone Ranger’s Tonto!) bands.

Chiricahua (Geronimo's tribe) Occupied southwestern New Mexico, southeastern Arizona, and the Mexican states of Chihuahua and Sonora.

Mescalero (Faraon) Lived east of the Rio Grande in southern New Mexico.

Jicarilla (Tinde) Lived in southeastern Colorado, northern New Mexico, and northwest Texas.

Lipan Lived just east of the Jicarilla.

Kiowa Apache (Gataka) Lived in the southern plains of Texas, Oklahoma, and Colorado.

146 Laubin 9. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 156

Life changed for the Apache when gold was discovered in Western Apache territory in 1863, and the U.S. government permitted soldiers and citizens to indiscriminately attack the Apache. Once, a large group of Apache were invited to a "peace conference" and instead were fed poisoned food, which naturally infuriated the Apache people. The Camp Grant Massacre mentioned earlier (with the slaughter of mostly women and children and the selling of Apache children as slaves to the Mexicans) led to the government policy to place all Apache on reservations as a step to "civilize" them. It was in 1874 that the U.S. Department of the Interior placed all Western Apache, Chiricahua, and the Yavapai Indians on the large but very barren San Carlos reservation. This move was a cultural disaster, for the government failed to recognize divisions and cultural differences between the tribes. Fighting broke out, and by 1882, the reservation was in a shambles. The Chiricahua began to raid the reservation, and hostilities continues until 1886 when Geronimo turned himself in, and the remaining Chiricahua were shipped in railroad boxcars to prisons in Florida. Once there, many Apaches were accused of crimes they did not commit, found guilty, and either given the death sentence or sent to one of the most horrible prisons ever - Alcatraz prison in the San Francisco Bay.

Apache Religion, Music, and Ceremonies Despite the harshness of Apache history, some significant traditional ceremonies and their music remain. One of the most important ceremonies for the Western, Mescalero, and Chiricahua Apache is the Sunrise Ceremony for a young girl's "coming out" (change to a woman).

Called the “Na’ii’ees”, the Apache Sunrise Ceremony is a four-day communal celebration that marks the first menstruation of an Apache woman. It consists of numerous sacred rituals, dances, songs, and enactments during which the girl becomes a living representation of White Painted Woman, the first woman in the world and the mother of the Apache people.

The purposes of the Sunrise Ceremony are numerous. First, a young woman undergoing the ceremony achieves a deep connection to her spiritual heritage. She identifies with White Painted Woman and the symbol of womanhood that she represents. Second, it marks the transition from childhood to adulthood, allowing the young woman to celebrate her new status in a communal setting. Third, it helps her embrace her role as an Apache woman, encouraging her to be hard working, selfless, and composed. According to Tika Yupanqui, the young woman’s “temperament during the ceremony is believed to be the primary indicator of her temperament throughout her future life“. Finally, the Sunrise Ceremony helps unify the community by bringing friends and families together. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 157

Apache Sunrise Ceremony - Na’ii’ees147

The hosting of a Sunrise Ceremony can sometimes require up to six months of preparation. The young woman undergoing the ceremonial ordeal must be trained, her buckskin dress must be sewn, a medicine man chosen, food prepared, and a hundred other large and small tasks must be completed simply for the Sunrise Ceremony to begin.

Because of the physical element of the ceremony (the girl dances and runs extensively) rigorous physical training is often a large part of the preparation for a Sunrise Ceremony. During the week before the ceremonial, the girl’s family honors

147 http://keeperofstories.blogspot.com/2012/11/naiiees-ceremony.html

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her godparents by serving them a special meal. Then, four nights of singing and prayers lead up to the main ceremonial.

The actual ceremony is just as complex as the preparation, if not more so. It traditionally takes place the summer after a girl’s first menstrual cycle. Families usually pray that the weather will be pleasant for the ceremony, but if the Creator God Usen decides to give them rain, then the Sunrise Ceremony simply becomes a sacred test of the girl's faith and endurance. The Sunrise Ceremony consists of several smaller rituals, the more significant of which include the Dressing Ceremony, the Sunrise Dance, the Massaging, the Crown Dance, and the Painting Ceremony.

On the day before the ceremony, the men who will be involved take a sweat bath to purify themselves. Then the medicine man and his assistants prepare some of the ritual items that will be used during the ceremony, such as a scratching stick, drinking tube, an abalone shell pendant, a downy eagle feather, a fringed buckskin serape, and a large buckskin. A special meal is cooked and served to the girl’s godmother. Sometimes the Dressing Ceremony occurs on this day; at other times it takes place the next day.

Before sundown on the day of the ceremony, the girl’s godparents come dancing into the camp and dress her in her traditional, highly symbolic clothing. Before the dressing ceremony begins, the medicine man will make a speech, urging people to be prayerful for the duration of the ceremony and reminding them that they are all brothers and sisters. He tells the girl that because she is embodying White Painted Woman during this time, she will have access to White Painted Woman’s special healing powers. He admonishes her to fast and drink only water.

Then the dressing ceremony begins. The young woman is led to the middle of a ground-covering where feathers, drums, buckskins, scarves, beads, shells, and sacred yellow pollen have all been carefully laid out. The last thing to be put on her is the eagle feather. After the Dressing Ceremony, the medicine man and his singers sing thirty two songs.

The next day, the young woman is woken up before sunrise by one of the medicine man’s assistants and is led out to the dance grounds. There, she prepares the blankets she will dance and be massaged upon. That morning, she dances for six hours total, a test of physical as well as spiritual endurance. Later, the young woman kneels down on her blanket and sways back and forth to the sound of the medicine man and his assistants singing. Finally, she is bid to lie down on the blanket, and she is massaged by her godmother. Her legs, back, and shoulders are massaged to mold her into a strong, beautiful woman. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 159

After the Sunrise Dance, two men cut down trees that will be used to build the girl’s prayer tipi. That evening, dinner is served to everyone and there are gift exchanges. Then, the Crown Dancers (always men) perform. They are considered to be spiritual beings, not men in costumes, and the assembled people bless them with sacred yellow pollen. Thirty-two Crown Dance songs are sung that night, and the girl dances with the Crown Dancers in her tipi all night.

The girl is permitted to sleep for a little while, and then the following morning she is again drawn to her blanket, where she begins the corn for her Painting Ceremony. Then she dances for several hours more and is painted from head to foot with corn, pollen, and sometimes clay. After the Painting Ceremony, the Crown Dancers perform once again, are thanked, and dismissed. The girl is allowed to rest for the remainder of the day. The next day final prayers are said. The girl is undressed by her godmother, more songs are sung, and the Sunrise Ceremony ends.

As mentioned previously, during the Sunrise Ceremony the young woman is considered to be the living embodiment of White Painted Woman. While performing the actual rituals in the ceremony, her powers are used for herself. However, between rituals and when the ceremony is over, individuals will often approach the young woman to receive the benefit of her blessing, which has the power to heal. When being healed by the young woman, the patient kneels or stands across from her. She lifts her arms, palms upward, four times without ever actually touching the patient.

Associated with the powers of White Painted Woman are taboos that the young woman must follow. She cannot drink except with a straw, because the cup she drinks from may cause her to grow whiskers about her mouth. She is not allowed to bathe, because that would wash away some of the power. If she has an itch, she must scratch it only with a scratching stick, for otherwise she will develop sores that could potentially cause ugly scars to form.

According to Tika Yupanqui, “In the early 1900’s, when the U.S. government banned Native American spiritual practices and rituals, conducting the Sunrise Ceremony was an illegal act; as a result, its practice diminished, and those ceremonies that did occur were conducted secretly.” It wasn’t until 1978 that the Sunrise Ceremony was openly re-established on most reservations under the protection of the American Indian Religious Freedom Act. As a result, the practice of the Sunrise Ceremony has died out somewhat over the last century.

Traditionally, every single Apache woman would have undergone a Sunrise Ceremony to celebrate her entrance into womanhood. However, this is no longer the case. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 160

Today, it is often too expensive to have a Sunrise Ceremony, and even when families can afford it, they do not always want to adhere to the traditional ways of their ancestors. Because of the great amounts of time and expenses involved with the hosting of a Sunrise Ceremony, many young women celebrate their initiation into womanhood today in a shortened, one to two day ceremony. Also, while a single young woman would once have been the only focus of a Sunrise Ceremony, today ceremonies are occasionally sponsored by more than one family and celebrate the menstruation of multiple young girls at once.148

An initiate is assisted by an elder during the Sunrise Ceremony149

Like most Native American tribes, the Apache also participate in fasting, and ceremonies involve steps toward visions of dreams. Healing ceremonies also exist. Illness can be viewed as possible witchcraft, or more often the result of violating a higher power. The power of group involvement to heal (group prayer), the power of positive thoughts, music, and happiness are highly valued by the Apache. There are

148 Ibid. 149 http://photos.alphacoders.com/photos/by_sub_category/289 (a number of other photos of the Sunrise Ceremony may be found here).

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medicine men with the power to heal, but they often use traditional medicines to compliment the modern-day medicines. (For example, why turn down penicillin?)

There is concern about the decline in traditional ceremonies. There are fewer ceremonies because they were believed to be no longer necessary, were stamped out by the "authorities", were too complex to remember, or too costly to maintain. There is considerable variance between Apache traditions depending on which nation you are interested in, so it is difficult to simply label a particular way as “Apache”.

While Apache traditional music reflects characteristics of Hopi and Navajo, it is based on a complex system that is manifested within the tribe's social and religious structure. Music is performed at ceremonies, social dance songs, game songs, protective songs, and songs to honor outstanding achievements or warriors. Most songs contain vocals with water drum.

Singers are usually traditional practitioners and are able to conduct ceremonies and use traditional medicine. The style is nasal and moves to a falsetto quality on high pitches. Songs alternate between a chorus of vocables and a chorus with Apache language verse. Verses in ceremonial songs tend to be individual prayers, delivered in a half singing-half spoken manner. Song texts of ceremonial songs are long and complex.

Some songs begin high and go downward, while others do not. Some songs have a chantlike quality with one syllable per drum beat, and only a few different pitches (notes) in the song, but others have more syllables per drum beat and a more varied melody. Keep in mind that these 3 and 4 notes melody songs are that way on purpose, particularly ceremonial songs, much like chanting in Catholic or Lutheran churches. Most Apache songs are in a “normal” vocal range, but a few can be quite high in pitch like the Navajo. Women’s groups often use a vibrato that resembles the Navajo, with a wide pitch variation (resembling Middle Eastern styles and styles of India).

Most songs have regular drumbeats, but some resemble the Hopi (Pueblo) with drumbeats following the word syllables, requiring dancers to have a keen knowledge of the song in order to dance to it! While vocals “in-sync” with the drums is by far the norm, the songs with very complex lyrics can almost seem to be “out of sync” due to the complexity of the lyrics. Rattles will be shaken with the drums on some songs, particularly those of ceremonial significance.

Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 162

The Apache Crown Dance is designed to scare off evil spirits150

The Northwest Coast and the Arctic The musical style of the northwest coast is somewhat different. We find a few instances of one voice sustaining a single drone while another sings a moving melody. Rhythmic polyphony (different musical parts going on at the same time) between the melody and the percussion accompaniment exists, and is often intricate. Percussion instruments include clappers made of split sticks, "foot drums" consisting of a plank over a pit in the floor, and rattles. The rattles are of the container type, filled with small pebbles, and are made chiefly of wood, often carved in bird or animal form. Logs, planks, or boxes are beaten. The tambourine was acquired in the nineteenth century. Flutes are rare, but single-note whistles occur. The Northwest Coast is one of the few areas in which reed instruments, on the order of very simple clarinets and oboes, were played by some tribes.151

In the arctic drums used are of the tambourine type, a single hide stretched over a hoop - that is, a disk-shaped variety of a single-headed drum.152 Music has the same purposes of spirituality, and in some cases, disputes can be settled through

150 http://www.nps.gov/media/photo/gallery.htm?id=CE7930EE-155D-451F-6765770AA5421566 151 Driver., 198-199. 152 Driver, 198. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 163

songs. "Two men, instead of fighting, may compete with each other in songs of ridicule, with the audience acting as an informal court."153 Dances may be for ceremonies, or may be impressions of animals or birds.

The Peyote Ceremony The peyote ceremony is a traditional southwestern ceremony, and there are many peyote songs to go with it. The natural origin of peyote is in the desert along the Rio Grande in South Texas and Mexico. Ancient traders carried the "Good Medicine" to distant tribes in North and South America.154 The barefooters (Indians of Mexico) were the first to use peyote; second were the Apaches, and the third were the . , chief of the Comanches, introduced it to other tribes.

The Incas used peyote to aid brain surgery, and it was a sacrament in the peaceful religions that developed in Pueblo villages along the Rio Grande. It was first used by women in the southwest to aid childbirth and menstrual cramps, and still is today. Its healing qualities have been used for numerous illnesses such as prostate problems and arthritis.

Peyote Cacti155

In its natural state peyote is a small, defenseless cactus, quite abundant in places where the desert is undisturbed. It is an herb, not a drug. Drugs are manufactured in laboratories by people; herbs are plants that grow naturally and are unaltered. The distinction between drugs and herbs is of great significance,

153 Driver, 198. 154 Guy Mount. The Peyote Book: A Study of Native Medicine, Third Edition. Cottonwood, CA, Sweetlight Books, 1993, p. 20. 155 http://www.drug-information-resource.com/gallery/index.php?cat=18 Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 164

because words like "drugs" and "hallucinations" to describe peyote and its effects can lead people astray, for they have negative connotations.156

Lophophora williamsii (peyote) represents a veritable factory of alkaloids. More than thirty alkaloids and their amine derivatives have been isolated from the plant. Although most (if not all) of them are in some way or other biodynamically active, their effects are not well understood... The phenyletylamine mescaline is the vision- inducing alkaloid...Other alkaloids are undoubtedly responsible for the tactile, auditory and occasionally other hallucinations of the peyote intoxication. There are very real differences between peyote intoxication and mescaline intoxication. Among aboriginal users, it is the fresh or dried heads of the cactus, with its total alkaloid content that is ingested, mescaline...produces the effects of but one of the alkaloids, without the physiological interaction of the others that are present in the crude plant material. - Richard E. Schultes, Director of the Botanical Museum, Harvard University157

The Peyote religion is described as a friendly road. People sit in a circle around a fire; take turns singing songs, praying, passing around a drum, a rattle, and a basket of good medicine. Everyone is welcome to share their songs. Peyote songs use a tunable drum that is brought down in pitch and then back up to signify major divisions of the songs. Peyote songs contain a mixture of language and vocables and can be quite long (more than 20 minutes). Sometimes the song can evolve right into another song, or at least can sound like it. Songs share characteristics of Apache, Navajo and Pueblo music, but with a smoother style of singing. Plus, the tunable drums make a very distinct sound. Some songs are in a medium tempo, but other songs can be very fast!

The pitches of the vocal melodies have a unique, non-western tuning sound that offer “notes between the notes” in terms of comparisons to European equal temperament. There were no in the desert southwest in the old days! Skilled singers will create the same quarter-tone pitches every time, and exact tuning is as difficult as Western Art Songs. The vocal range of peyote songs is higher in general than most southwest songs. Some songs are unaccompanied and sung solo, or in unison. Some are done with rattles and no drums. In recent years, a modernized version of peyote songs has been popularized by Verdell Primeaux, a Sioux, and Johnny Mike, a Navajo; the latter incorporating a two-part harmony.

Meetings can last all night, guided by an experienced Peyote roadman. The roadman keeps everybody on the right and good path. The main purposes of a meeting are to have a personal spiritual encounter, and provide a safe alternative healing center for the treatment of a wide variety of physical and psychological disorders.

156 Mount, pp. 14,15,22. 157 Mount, p. 77. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 165

Ceremonial rituals and traditions of the (a southwestern term created in the early 20th century) will vary according to the cultural and individual influences of local chapter members. The church has also spread to the northern plains as well. In general, peyotism stresses a high moral code, and the priests insist that by "thinking good," one will see nothing but good. Peyote has absolutely no recreational aspects for the church participants. One must come to peyote for truth, in an attitude of worship. Certain anthropologists believe that peyotism has kept down alcoholism. Unquestionably there are peyotists who drink, but probably not to the extent they would otherwise. The priests insist that if Indians would "think right” they will not crave liquor. The peyote ethic teaches avoidance of alcohol. As in the Covering the Pipe Ceremony and the Sun Dance, there must always be a vow for something of importance to the individual, to the tribe, or to the world as a whole.158 Rolling Thunder states:

It’s a purification ceremony like most of our ceremonies. It's not used to get high or for foolishness. It's used in a way that we want to cleanse our systems, and our minds, so we can put ourselves on a higher plane of life. I know that there are a couple of groups of white people now who are using it right, but the great majority of them aren't using it right at all, and they might be punished for it. I've seen some of the results of punishment . . . It's terrible when it kicks back on you. But peyote is good. I've seen it used for many good purposes when it is used right."159

With the northern Arapaho in Wyoming, the prayer ceremony lasts twelve hours and requires specific items such as a three foot staff, or the symbol of the authority of the chief, a ceremonial fan, a decorated gourd rattle, and a special kettle drum. Fans are symbolic of birds, messengers from Man-Above. The rattles are made of rounded gourds about five inches in diameter, usually with beaded handles about nine inches long. The drum, a three-legged iron kettle, is filled half full with water, and a dozen hot coals are thrown before the well-soaked buckskin head is stretched in place. The heads of Peyote drums, which use an iron kettle for a shell, are fastened by tying to marbles attached to the skin in the same way. The Peyote religion was introduced on the Southern Plains from Mexico, and so water drums must have been used there too.160

In the Peyote ceremonies of the Kiowa and Comanche, the white buckskin is laced to the iron kettle drums with seven marbles that are arranged in the shape of a seven pointed star - a practice dating back to the 1870's. The resonance of the drum improves after it has been beaten for an hour. If the drum dries up, it is refilled. After the ceremony, the drum head is removed and the water is

158 Mount, pp. 35,40,58. 159 Mount, p. 58. 160 Laubin, 102. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 166

consumed, as it is then considered holy. Peyote drums are not dance drums, although dancing may have played a part in original Peyote worship. "Peyote in its present form came to the tribes near the end of the Buffalo Days when dancing was not only dying out on its own but was being discouraged by official circles."161

A Peyote Dance is also practiced by the Tarahumara Indians of Mexico. There are a good number of similarities to the Sweat Ceremonies of some tribes, without the intense heat, for the peyote acts as the messenger. The peyote is like an intermediary between man and God. In some ceremonies the Catholic influence is there and members will cross themselves.

Hopefully it is clear that the ceremony has many variances. Given is one very realistic and concise account:

The meeting place is a tipi with its entrance to the east. A crescent-shaped altar and fire are prepared according to custom. A drum, feather fan, eagle humerus whistle, gourd rattle, tobacco, and sagebrush complete the necessary ritual equipment.

The chief or roadman usually supplies the peyote for the meeting. Members bathe before the meeting, and about nightfall they gather in small groups outside the tipi—first the chief, then the chief-drummer, the cedarman, next the men, then the women and children with the fire-chief last—all making their way into the tipi.

The leader places the "chief peyote" upon some sagebrush leaves on the top of the altar and prays. Everyone is invited to speak of their ills and struggles, so that prayers may be voiced in their behalf. The tobacco is passed and cigarettes are made and lit from the glowing firestick.

Each person blows the first four puffs of smoke toward the "chief peyote" on the altar and prays. The cigarette butts are then placed at the base of the altar.

Next, sprigs of sagebrush are passed and the leaves are rubbed between the hands, sniffed, rubbed over the limbs, and beaten four times against the chest to purify the body. A sack of peyote follows the sage, and each adult takes four buttons.

Since the peyote is extremely bitter and nauseous, coughing and spitting often succeed the arduous swallowing. Everyone sits as still as possible until all have finished eating the medicine, because the partaking of the divine plant during meetings is a sacred procedure and supposed to be accompanied by silent prayer.

After the eating, the chief holds the staff and fan, shakes the rattle, and sings the Opening Song, accompanied by the chief-drummer's rapid drum beats. Only four

161 Laubin, 104-5. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 167

songs have to be sung at fixed times: the Opening Song, the Midnight Water Call, the Morning Water Call, and the Closing Song.

During the remainder of the ritual each man sings any song he wishes when it is his turn to lead, holding the staff and fan in one hand and shaking the rattle with the other. Women neither hold the staff to lead the singing nor beat the drum.

With midnight and the Midnight Water Call, the fire-chief replenishes the fire, the Midnight Song is sung, and prayers are offered through four puffs of smoke. All drink water. Singing then continues with renewed vigor; each using their own equipment. Personal supplies of peyote may be consumed after midnight, and prayers continue to be offered.

A special morning ritual duplicates some features of the Midnight Water Call; the fire is refueled and the central altar area cleaned. The chief then sings the Morning Water Call, and following the four blasts on the whistle, a woman, usually the chief’s wife, brings in the water and kneels.

After ceremonial duties, the water is again spilled on the ground, a breakfast follows, and the Closing Song is sung, followed by more lengthy prayers and blessings. All equipment is dismantled and put away, and then the fire-chief leads the exit, followed by the chief. Once the ritual is over, some people leave to prepare the noon feast and others to rest, relating their spiritual experiences and visions. -Walk In Beauty-162

Several states have passed laws against possession and use of peyote; however, very little evidence has been reported on this subject. The Peyote religion has been suppressed by laws which discriminate against followers according to their race, and by ideas which discredit the medicine by classifying it as a dangerous drug. In California the use of peyote is a felony under state law. In 1978, the passage of the American Indian Religious Freedom Act allowed the practice of peyotism by American Indians for the first time, although some harassment still occurs, such as arrests and detainments. New York, Arizona, and New Mexico do permit the sacramental use of peyote by non-Indians who are members of the Native American Church. In the other 47 states; therefore, it is against the law for peyotism to be practiced by non-Indians, which is one of the major battlefronts in the court issues today regarding peyote.

162 http://flickr.com/photos/10277973@N04/2405047209 Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 168

Peyote drummer in the “old days”163

Although peyotism is now allowed for Indians, its practitioners face two additional major problems. The first is the laws against cultivation of peyote, and the second is the destruction of the growing areas of peyote to the point where it is now very difficult to find. "The Peyote religion and the herbal sacrament it depends on will soon be extinct unless something radical is done to establish environmental protection and decriminalize cultivation. There is also a great need to provide educational curriculum that supports a peaceful transition from an abusive "War on Drugs" to a knowledgeable use of herbal medicines. Our educational system presently teaches children that "drug use" is crazy and criminal. There is no distinction made between herbs and drugs, nor are any positive images of herbal medicines provided, so it's not surprising that American teenagers act crazy and commit crimes when they use herbs and drugs - that's what they've been taught to do!164

Peyotists would be the last people on this planet that would want to see people take drugs indiscriminately, especially hallucinogenic ones. This is a far cry from the elaborate and sacred rituals of those who wish to worship the Creator in a peyote medicine ceremony.

163 http://www.wisdomoftheelders.org/prog202/images/peyote_drummer_curtis.jpg

164 Mount, p. 108. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 169

The American Indian Movement Militants? Radicals? Troublemakers? These are all words associated with AIM, the American Indian Movement, founded in 1968. From Plymouth Rock to Alcatraz to the occupation of Wounded Knee, Native Americans began to ask for treaty rights, equal justice, and sovereignty (freedom from external control).

The founding members of AIM were Eddie Benton, Dennis Banks, Clyde Bellecourt, Harold Godsky, George Mitchell, and Russell Means. In Minneapolis, they began to monitor instances of police brutality involving Native Americans in the late 1960's. They quickly became a symbolic confrontational group for urban-based Native Americans displaced to the cities as a result of Congressional laws in 1953 breaking up tribal funds on the reservations.

As AIM received more attention, violent events received press coverage, while other events would not, reinforcing negative stereotypes. Within AIM, and within reservation communities, there were differences regarding the use of protest and violence as a means of change, yet many felt this was the only way Native Americans would ever get any attention regarding critical Native American issues. Concerns of AIM also included infant mortality, lack of health care, and unemployment. In 1972, AIM members seized and occupied the Bureau of Indian Affairs in Washington, demanding the complete reorganization of the BIA. After negotiations ended, AIM left for a $60,000 cash offering, later considered to be a major mistake on the organization's part, for more could have been gained through a different type of settlement.

The Re-occupation of Wounded Knee The re-occupation of Wounded Knee, South Dakota occurred in 1973 as a wide- scale protest of the corruption of Dick Wilson, tribal president, who had organized a band of “enforcement officers” known as the GOON (Guardians of the Ogallala Nation). The “Goon squads” would harass or murder anyone getting in the way of the blatant embezzlement of tribal funds. Anyone not supporting Wilson or his thugs would be denied food rations, health care, electricity, or heat in the winter. The early 1970's were dark days for the Pine Ridge Reservation, and crime soared. Not able to defeat the GOON squads militarily, a group of members marched through Pine Ridge and occupied Wounded Knee (the former place where hundreds were massacred in 1890) as a symbolic protest, a move that received national attention. Supporters took over the site of the 1890 massacre to create national attention to embezzlement of tribal funds, abuses, and murders on the Pine Ridge Reservation. U.S. troops and the FBI surrounded the encampment, and several skirmishes caused bloodshed.

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American Indian Movement members met with a U.S. Department of Justice worker (in a white shirt) during the Wounded Knee protest of 1973.165

After 71 days of occupation, the AIM members agreed to leave, but most were immediately incarcerated. The Dick Wilson regime did not end, and the immediate situation got worse before it improved. Some 300 AIM members were killed on and around the Pine Ridge Lakota Reservation alone in the two-year aftermath of the 1973 Wounded Knee occupation. Dick Wilson would not be reelected; however, and the violence subsided considerably after that.

AIM members also occupied government buildings in Rapid City, South Dakota, demanding the return of the Black Hills to the Sioux tribes. This was not resolved, but the U.S. Government eventually offered monetary compensation to the Sioux, which was roundly refused. Press coverage for these events painted a negative picture of AIM, but the attention did create an increased concern for Native American issues, including Native Americans unfairly incarcerated.

AIM maintains an active voice today, and current issues address Native American Spirituality, and rights regarding bones, treaties, mineral resources, fishing, water quality, and many environmental abuses. Despite the work of AIM, issues important

165 http://kids.britannica.com/elementary/art-89169/American-Indian-Movement-members-met- with-a-US-Department-of

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to traditional Native Americans have been routinely and connsistenly igonored by the media and politicians, mainly because there aren’t enough Native American voters to sway an election one way or another. Russell Means, one of the AIM founders and one of the most well-known “American Indians” (the term he preferred) in history, voiced his frustration:

We were kept outside of the antiwar movement and on the fringe of the civil rights movement. When human rights were the big thing, they never mentioned Indians. Now with the advent of the environmental and anti-nuke movements, most people would still prefer to ignore us. Indians just don't fit in anywhere... --Russell Means--

Leonard Peltier Another compelling issue involving AIM was the case of AIM member Leonard Peltier. In 1975, Peltier was heading an armed defensive encampment near the village of Oglala on the Pine Ridge Reservation. On June 26 of that year, two armed) FBI agents came up to the camp, ostensibly to search for a young Indian accused of stealing a pair of cowboy boots. The agents had been to the camp the day before and had determined the "suspect" was not present. On the fatal morning, their aggressive entry was met with a volley of gunfire; shortly thereafter, both agents and another AIM member lay dead.

There followed the greatest "manhunt" in FBI history. While no determination has ever been made as to the circumstances the AIM member’s death--or any of the other AIM casualties of this period--the Bureau quickly decided that the killers of its agents were likely four Indian men: Jimmy Eagle (the individual supposedly sought in the boot caper), Bob Robideau, Dino Butler, and Leonard Peltier.

Eagle was apprehended but never brought to trial; "lack of evidence" was cited. Robideau and Butler, captured in the wake of the explosion of their car near Kansas City, were brought to trial in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, and acquitted amidst a controversy concerning FBI misconduct in the prosecution of their case (no effort has ever been made to investigate the FBI in this connection).

Peltier, earlier on, had sought asylum amongst the Creek people of western Canada. Apprehended by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police at the behest of the FBI, he formally petitioned the Canadian government to grant him status as a political refugee, contending that regardless of his guilt or innocence in any criminal matter, he could not receive a fair hearing in the U.S. because of his position as an AIM activist.

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The FBI responded by providing the Canadians with two demonstrably fabricated" eyewitness" affidavits signed by one Myrtle Poor Bear, a clinically unbalanced Lakota woman who, it was later revealed, had never laid eyes upon Peltier and who was more than 50 miles from Oglala the day of the firefight. The Canadians thereupon honored the U.S. extradition request.

With Robideau and Butler acquitted, and with its own conduct in question, the FBI was desperate for a conviction. The feds sought, and received, a change of venue from the scene of their disastrous prosecution in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, to a new location in Fargo, North Dakota. The site change also created a change in the trial judges. The new one, Paul Benson, proved more accommodating to federal interests than had his predecessor; virtually the entire defense case which had won dismissal of charges against Butler and Robideau and which had exposed at least a portion of the FBI "investigative techniques" being utilized, was ruled inadmissible. The prosecution, on the other hand, enjoyed free reign. Thus, Leonard Peltier was sentenced to serve two life sentences for the "murder" of federal agents.

Despite severe procedural and evidentiary problems in the handling of Peltier's trial (Chief Judge William Webster duly noted these and found them "disturbing") a retrial was not called for. Shortly afterward, Webster was named to head the FBI, guaranteeing the U.S. Supreme Court would never hear the case. Nevertheless, Peltier defense team members developed a second strategic approach, filing under provisions of the Freedom of Information Act for the release of FBI file documents related to the case. As of this writing, some 12,000 of the estimated 18,000 pages of FBI material have been secured. (The Bureau maintained the balance could not be released for reasons of "national security" but lately says it has "lost" all the remaining documents.)

The new released information; however, concretized many defense allegations concerning FBI procedure: spurious ballistics information introduced at the trial; "eyewitness sightings" of Peltier in the killing zone which were physically impossible (even by Bureau standards), suppression of evidence, fabrication of evidence, intimidation of witnesses and extortion of testimony, and so forth. The documents also demonstrate conclusively that Paul Benson, the trial judge, met regularly with the federal representatives both before and during the trial in order to coordinate trial procedures in a matter favorable to the prosecution.

With this information in hand, the defense went back to Fargo in 1982 with two motions. First, that Judge Benson disqualify himself as compromised by his own trial conduct, and second, that an evidentiary hearing be conducted concerning the 12,000 pages of exhibitable evidence "unavailable at the time of the original trial." Perhaps predictably, Benson both refused to step down or to hear any new Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 173

evidence. The defense has since gone back to the 8th Circuit Court of Appeals seeking an evidentiary hearing. At this juncture, it appears that Chief Judge Lay may also be seeking to deny even so much as a hearing on the matter. Without the hearing, there can be neither a new trial nor a reversal of the results of the old one. In fact, the hearing was denied, leading to more appeals, and eventual final failure of the legal process. The Leonard Peltier case has received international attention; in fact, more attention about the case has been given abroad than in the U.S.

166 Meanwhile, Leonard Peltier, with thirty-six years of incarceration under his belt and a lifetime to go, sits caged within the maximum federal security prison at Lewisberg, Pennyslvania. He has since been transferred to Coleman, Florida – far from his original home and family in North Dakota. Short of an unlikely congressional investigation, or an even more unlikely presidential pardon, this is his last stop before an eternity of confinement for a "crime" he did not commit.

166 http://rt.com/usa/leonard-peltier-prize-bendetti-935/

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Quite a lot of music comes from this issue and others surrounding the AIM. Russell Means produced his own CD "Electric Warrior" and has taken several significant acting roles in movies and on TV. John Trudell, another prominent AIM member, paid a huge price for his AIM activities. While in Washington D.C. a few years after the reoccupation of Wounded Knee, Trudell's wife and children were murdered when a mysterious "fire" engulfed their home. Since that devastating experience, Trudell turned to poetry set to contemporary music mixed with traditional Native American songs. Trudell has performed internationally, and has a number of CD's released.

Sports Logos and Mascots It is tempting to simply dismiss protests against the way Native Americans have been represented through sports logos and mascots as an exaggeration of political correctness. You may have seen the infamous “tomahawk chop” done by Braves fans, heard of the Washington Redskins, or witnessed “Chief Wahoo” of the Cleveland Indians. Rarely are people more divided on an issue than whether or not sports logos and mascots should continue to be used as in the past. Let’s look at this in a question-and-answer format:

Q. What’s the point to all this protesting? It’s “honoring” the Indians. A. Would you paint your face black, wear an Afro wig and prance around the football field trying to imitate your perceptions of Black people? Of course not! That would be insulting to Blacks so why is it ok to do this to Indians? -Tim Giago (Lakota) Editor-in-chief, the Lakota Times-

Q. Shouldn’t we protest the California Angels and the New Orleans Saints because they are offensive to Christians? A. When you go to one of their games and they are selling toy crucifixes as souvenirs and every time the team scores, the fans wave those crucifixes and a little mascot dressed like the pope runs around and sprinkles holy water on all the drunks, then you should start protesting, and us Indians will be right there beside you. -Clyde Bellecourt (Anishinaabe) Director, American Indian Movement-

Q. Aren’t there more important issues for Indian people to be worried about? A. People of faith need to stand up and take this issue seriously. The use of demeaning caricatures of American Indian people as “mascots” or logos for sports teams is morally wrong. It denies the respect they deserve as brothers and sisters created in the image of God. The church strongly opposes any use of racial stereotypes, especially for commercial profit. The time has come to put an end to this form of racism in our society. -The Rt. Rev. Steve Charlston, Episcopal Bishop of Alaska-

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Chief “Wahoo” (Cleveland Indians)

Q. Why can an Indian reservation school have an Indian logo and a team such as the “Warriors” and other teams can’t? A. Ethnocentric insensitivity and disregard of opinions of Native people is the continuing saga of American history. Only Native people should have the rights to say how their images are projected to the outside public. -Paul DeMain (Oneida-Ojibwe), Editor, News from Indian Country- A. The whole point is that Native Americans can and should make the decision about how they are portrayed. They choose to use an appropriate symbol for their school; that is their prerogative. It is not a matter for non- Indians to decide. -Sharon Metz, Director, HONOR-

Q. This has been going on for years. Why didn’t the Indians protest when the symbols were adopted? A. The issue that these logos and mascots offend has always been there. We have a chance to change it with respect to Indian people and be enlightened in the process. We don’t know our own racism in using these logos and mascots. -Rev. Marlene Whiterabbit Helgemo (Winnebago), VCC-

Q. I know some Indians who think the logos are fine and some even sell plastic tomahawks. Isn’t it just a radical minority that is protesting? A. The National Congress of American Indians recognizes the sovereignty and rights of each tribe to determine their own destiny. NCAI and other national and regional Indian and non-Indian organizations strongly oppose the denigration and stereotyping of rich Indian cultures and heritage and do not sanction the pandering and pecuniary gain by those perpetrating these negative images. Our sacred songs, dances, ceremonies, languages and religions are precious to us as a people. -Gaiashkibos (Ojibwe) President, NCAI and Chairman, Lac Courte Oreilles Tribal Governing Board-

Q. How does it harm Indian people? Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 176

A. As a group of professional mental health providers, we are in agreement that using images of American Indians as mascots is damaging to the self- identity, self-concept, and self esteem of our people. American Indian Mental Health Association of Minnesota A. The issue of the Indian mascot has affected the perceptions of both Native Americans and non-natives toward the image of Native American people, as well as leaving emotional and psychological scars in those parents and students involved in the continuous struggle of unlearning Indian stereotypes. -Cornell Pewewardy (Commanche-Kiowa) Principal, American Indian Magnet School, St. Paul, Minnesota-

The most derogatory of all, in my opinion, is the use of the term ‘redskin’. Jack Kent Cooke, Owner of the Washington Redskins stated: “I found it difficult to accept your statement that the name ‘Redskins’ is racist, derogatory and demeaning to the American Indian.”

Hmm…let’s take a look at a few dictionary definitions:

“redskin, n. (often disparaging and offensive), a North American Indian.” -The Random House Dictionary, Second Edition, Unabridged-

“redskin, a No. American Indian – usually taken to be offensive.” -Webster’s Third New International Dictionary-

“redskin, A North American Indian (Not the preferred term.” -The Oxford English Dictionary, Second Edition

Q. What can I do to support Indian people and efforts to change attitudes and use of stereotypes? A. 1. Consult with local tribal leaders in your area. 2. Write to HONOR, 2647 N. Stowell Ave. Milwaukee, WI 53211 and request a list of appropriate actions. 3. Write to local universities and school districts that use Indian nicknames and mascots. 4. Write to the owners and commissioners of national professional teams.

Q. But, we don’t MEAN to offend anyone, so what’s wrong about using these logos? A. At one time, the use of the “Little Black Sambo” logo and the “Frito Bandido” was not deliberately intended to insult Blacks and Latinos, but they DID, and they were discontinued. I think one thing that distinguishes the Native American logo issue from other ethnic groups is that there were so many deaths and so much genocide in our past. When one tribe of people is responsible for 50 million deaths, incarceration, and land theft against another tribe, they should NOT be afforded the right to represent the Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 177

oppressed culture, even if intentions are good, without the sole permission of a very large majority of the oppressed. The Nazi’s do not represent the Jewish people with logos and caricatures after the holocaust. Because there is still hurt and injury in our own U.S. holocaust, sensitivity and compassion are needed. -Dr. John Webb (Cherokee, Ojibwe, Caucasian tribes)-

Here’s one more scenario from Rick Horowitz of the Capital Times:

Click. Here at Fulton County Stadium, where we’re just minutes away from the first pitch of this Fall Classic matchup. After all those rounds of playoff games, it’s down to this – the best of the National League against the best of the American: the Atlanta Italians against the Cleveland Jews. It’s been a long time coming for both these teams, isn’t that right, Tim?

Absolutely, Al. the Italians have made it to postseason a number of times in recent years, but they’ve never gone home with the big prize. They’re hoping this is finally their year.

And the Jews, Jim? Seems like they’ve been wandering in the desert for at least 40 years.

It’s even longer than that, Al. And this time around, they’re counting on their pitching and their big bats to get them to the Promised Land.

Two hungry teams, gentlemen, and I guess you’ve gotta give the early edge to Atlanta. Well rested, and they’ve got those home fans behind them for the first two games. Timmy, just how much of an advantage is that?

Well, you’ve still gotta win it on the field, Al, but it could make a difference in a close series. There’s nothing like playing in front of the home folks when they’re really pumped up, and everyone knows that Italians fans are the most enthusiastic fans in the country.

They’re not wearing all that tomato sauce on their faces for nothing, are they? You’d think it’d start itching after a while, but they don’t seem to mind.

They just LOVE their Italians down here, Al.

And Jim, what about those machine guns?

Well, that just started a few months ago. You know for years now, they’ve been doing that chant of theirs…

The theme from The Godfather? Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 178

Exactly – over and over again, all game long. Well, a few fans decided to liven things up a bit, so they started bringing these foam-rubber machine guns along, too, and it really caught on. Now every time the other team gets something going, the fans make like they’re praying the batter’s box with bullets.

A real rally killer, eh?

It’s gotta mess up your concentration, that’s for sure.

Of course, when you’re talking fan loyalty, Jews fans don’t take a back seat to anyone, do they, Tim?

Certainly not, Al. As we’ll see when the Series goes to Cleveland, they’ve got that city behind them 110%.

“Shylocks Set to Slice Meatballs” wasn’t that the headline in their paper the other day?

They’re ready, Al – no questions about it. The Italians may have their ‘rat-a-tat’, but you haven’t lived till you’ve seen 45,000 Jews fans up on their feet doing the ‘liver chop.’ Just amazing!

The Jews concede nothing to the Italians when it comes to arm waving, Timmy, that’s for sure. In fact, I see there’s even a handful of Jews fans here tonight – I don’t know how they got the tickets – and they’re walking around the stands in full Jews uniforms, right down to the little dollar bills on the caps.

And those plastic noses too, Al. Brave guys.

Now, we ought to point out that there have been objections to some of this stuff – people arguing it’s offensive to actual Jews and actual Italians. What are the teams saying?

Well, they say they’re just celebrating a colorful part of our culture, that they’re really honoring Jews and Italians. And anyway, they say their fans love it.

Of course, they’ve had those names pretty much forever, haven’t they?

You bet. And they’d be giving up a whole lot of marketing clout if they had to change everything just to satisfy some people who’ve got their noses out of joint, so to speak.

Our colleague attempts a little humor, I see.

That’s not my line – that’s what the teams are saying. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 179

You’re sure?

Honest Injun. I…

Click.

Spearfishing Another issue that has been of particular concern in the northern lakes is the right of Native Americans to continue to spearfish. The Ojibwe have used spears for many generations. Done originally by torches at night during spawning season, spearfishing today is done by battery-operated lights. The yearly spearing harvest takes only a short time, giving one the impression of over-fishing, because they are all caught at one time during the year.

In Wisconsin, the spearfishing harvest is 98% walleye, a few muskies, and a few other fish in the remaining 2%. Most walleye caught are males, and are taken during the spawning season. The number of walleye harvested in the spring has always been less than 10% of the adult population, and usually less than 5%. Fish are caught at an average of 10-15 per boat hour. In 1985-90 there was an average of 194-426 spearers per season. Between 16,000 and 26,000 walleye are speared per season, with less than 1,000 per season of other fish. Fall and summer spearing and netting only occurred in 1989. Some winter spearing occurs mainly at Lac Courte Oreilles, which amounts to 250-350 muskies. Bad River reservation harvesters use gill nets between the river mouth and the Bad River Falls during the spring.

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The Ojibwe have spearfished for over a thousand years. Contrary to myth, some hook and line fishing exists among the Ojibwe. Nevertheless, a perception developed that spearfishing removes too many fish from the lakes, and that Native Americans should be made to fish in the same manner as whites. A complete lack of education of this issue was central to increased anti-Native American sentiment in the northern great lakes in the 1980’s and ‘90’s. It is important to realize that all spearing and netting in open water has been closely monitored.

Treaty Background During the 1980’s and early 1990’s, there were many violent clashes in northern Wisconsin over the issue of Ojibwe spearfishing. Violent scenes at boat landings received national and even international attention. Hundreds or even thousands of non-Native American protesters showed up at boat landings as Ojibwe fishermen prepared to spearfish walleye and other species of fish.

Causes of this violence go back more than a century. Ojibwe bands in Wisconsin signed three major treaties with the United States in which they ceded their lands to the federal government. The first was signed in 1837 and the second in 1842. These transferred the entire Ojibwe homeland in Wisconsin to the federal government. In these treaties, the Ojibwe retained the right to hunt, fish, and gather wild rice and maple sap on lands they ceded to the United States. The 1854 treaty transferred the last Minnesota Ojibwe lands to the U.S. and established land reservations for Ojibwe bands, thus ensuring their continued residence in northern Wisconsin.

The Voight Decision and “Reserved Rights” After a series of disappointing legal decisions that allowed the state to override federal treaty laws, the Ojibwe were finally able to exercise their off-reservation treaty rights in 1983, when a federal court--the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit in Chicago--asserted that Wisconsin had no rights to regulate fishing on Ojibwe reservations and, more importantly, that the 1837 and 1842 treaties guaranteed Ojibwe rights to hunt and fish off their reservations without being bound by state regulations. This decision, commonly called the Voigt Decision, was upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court that same year.

In the eight years after the Voigt Decision, Ojibwe bands and Wisconsin received guidelines from the federal court on the extent to which the Ojibwe could harvest resources off their ceded territory and how the state could regulate those activities. During this time, the Ojibwe began to spearfish off of their reservations. Whites in northern Wisconsin were stunned by the Voigt Decision mainly because they did not understand it. They believed the federal court had JUST GIVEN the Ojibwe the right to hunt and fish on their ceded lands. In Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 181

actuality, the Ojibwe had never surrendered their rights to hunt and fish on the ceded territory. They possessed the land before they sold it to the U.S. and while they owned it they had the right to use it as they pleased. The United States acknowledged these rights in the treaties.

The Ojibwe sold these lands to the United States in the 1837 and 1842 treaties, but they retained their usufructuary rights, or the rights to hunt, fish, and gather on their ceded lands. These are called “reserved rights” because the Ojibwe reserved them even though they no longer possessed the lands on which they exercised these rights. Moreover, the United States agreed to these provisions when it made the two treaties. The federal court simply allowed the Ojibwe to exercise rights Wisconsin had wrongfully taken away.

Protests and Violence These arguments failed to convince many non-Indians in Wisconsin. They believed the federal court had given the Ojibwe special privileges. Whites also complained that the Ojibwe were allowed to harvest fish using methods employed by their ancestors but which were illegal for other fishermen. For centuries, the Ojibwe used torches on the ends of their canoes to attract fish and then speared them. The Ojibwe continued to use this method but used flashlights, metal spears, and aluminum boats. White protesters protested Ojibwe spearfishing at boat landings - often shouting obscenities, racial slurs, throwing rocks and bottles, and trying with their boats to tip over Ojibwe spearfishers' boats by causing large waves. In some cases, Ojibwe spearfishers were even shot at or assaulted while exercising their treaty rights.

The two groups that emerged to protest Indian spearfishing were Protect America's Rights and Resources (PARR) and Stop Treaty Rights Abuse (STA). Of the two, STA was the most militant under the leadership of a Minocqua, Wisconsin pizza parlor owner named Dean Crist, who organized some of the largest and most violent protests at boat landings. STA members argued that if they did not stop Indians from spearfishing, their livelihoods would be ruined because Indians would deplete the fish populations and hurt tourism in northern Wisconsin. In reality, the Ojibwe took only a small fraction of all fish taken from the lakes. Non-Indian sport fishermen took the vast majority of the "safe harvest," the total number of fish anyone was allowed to take out of the lakes each year without depleting fish populations.

Conservation and Restocking Tommy Thompson, elected governor in 1986, ran on a platform of abrogating or terminating Ojibwe treaty rights. Under Thompson's administration, the Wisconsin Department of Justice tried unsuccessfully to appeal the Voigt Decision. When Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 182

this did not work, the state offered the Mole Lake Ojibwe $10 million and the Lac du Flambeau Ojibwe $42 million if they would sign agreements with the state to end or at least suspend their rights to hunt and fish on the ceded territory. Both Ojibwe bands steadfastly refused these offers. At about the same time, Republican Congressman Frank J. Sensenbrenner introduced legislation in the United States Congress to abrogate all off-reservation hunting, fishing, and harvesting rights in Wisconsin. Neither Congress nor the President (George H.W. Bush) evinced any interest in pushing such legislation forward. The violence reached its peak in 1989, and Governor Thompson personally went to the federal court to plead for injunction to stop Ojibwe spearfishing and prevent further violence. Judge Barbara Crabb refused because the Ojibwe were doing nothing illegal. Crabb stated that it was non-Indian protesters, not the Indians, who were initiating the violence.

The Ojibwe also took actions that demonstrated their determination to act responsibly in the exercise of their treaty rights. Although allowed to take up all of the safe harvest of fish, they have always taken far less. In 1987, for example, the Ojibwe declared that they would harvest about 82,000 walleye. That year the Ojibwe bands of northern Wisconsin took only 21,321 walleye. Non-Indian sports fishermen, in comparison, took about 839,000 walleye from the lakes during that same year. Moreover, all six Ojibwe bands run their own fish hatcheries, and they all put more fish into the lakes every year than they take out by spearfishing.

In 1989, AIM was requested to provide expertise in dealing with angry protesters on boat landings. Spearfishing continued despite violence, arrests, and threats from white racists. Senator Daniel Inouye called for a study on the effects of Indian spearfishing. The study revealed that Indians only took 6% of fish, while the rest are taken as a result of sports fishing. Fish have always been a main staple of diet for many tribes, particularly the woodland tribes, where tribal harvesting is protected by treaty. Contrary to the dominant culture in the U.S., where angling is mainly recreational tourism, it remains critical to Indians as a major food supply.

The violence at boat landings in northern Wisconsin has died down considerably since 1991. That year, Wisconsin stated that it would no longer appeal the Voigt Decision. That same year, Judge Crabb issued a temporary injunction against protesters who engaged in violent behavior at boat landings and on lakes where the Ojibwe fished. Crabb made this injunction permanent in 1992.167

167 Much of the spearfishing information comes from: http://www.mpm.edu/wirp/icw-112.html

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The Real Problem Aquatic environments are complex, as well as environmental impact on fish. The following are some items that affect fish populations:

Settlement and shoreline development Agricultural, industrial, and hydro-electric development Tourism Logging and erosion Mining (causes major water pollution problems) Industrial, highway, railroad, and airborne contaminants Mercury from paints, coal-burning power plants, and garbage incinerators Pulp mill wastes, mining destruction, and pesticides

Despite all all of this, decline in fish is always and conveniently blamed on the Ojibwe. Myths about spearfishing are as incredible as the lack of Indian teachings in our history.

Because of the increased demand for fish, angling harvest quotas have had to be reduced. Many lakes have suffered declines in habitat quality through neglect and abuse, but most are capable of being restored to former levels of productivity by proper habitat improvement tech. The loss of spawning habitats is a primary concern for sturgeons, muskellunge, smallmouth bass, walleye, and particularly northern pike. Northern pike spawning marshes have been considerably degraded by shoreline development, dredging, and filling operations. Gravel areas have been covered for creation of sandy beaches for recreation, which is bad for fish. The moving of sand and silt and development of navigation channels cover up spawning areas.

Pulp mill wastes, mining destruction and pollutants such as pesticides make many fish inedible from lake Superior, Michigan, Green Lake, and many rivers, including the Mississippi and Wisconsin rivers, yet spearfishing is still unjustly blamed for decreased population. Over 152 bodies of water have mercury, PCB, and pesticide contamination, yet decline in fish is always and conveniently blamed on the Ojibwe. The myths about spearfishing are as incredible as the lack of Indian teachings in our history.

Continued threats of violent protests by whites at the boat landings during spawning season force tribal fishermen to focus spearing on well protected lakes. During spawning season, 85-90% of fish are males because females are the first to leave the spawning beds, while males loiter near the shore. If spearing was done at any other time, the numbers of males and females speared would be even; and there would be 35-40% fewer females to spawn next year! Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 184

Objectives in the near future are for each species and each lake to have an individual resource management. There are needs for more research, public involvement and public education/information. The decision to improve fishing for everyone is an important one. Besides ensuring the fish needed for survival for the Ojibwe, honoring the treaties will protect the land from environmental genocide to make the waters safe for everyone.

Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 185

Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 186

My Jacket

I wore my AIM jacket today I used to be afraid of what others might think "Hey, chief! Been smokin' that peyote?" But I'm not afraid anymore cause I know who I am

I wore my AIM jacket in Minocqua (Wisconsin) The heart of anti-spearfishing country By Crist pizza parlor where people stopped and stared a few even glared After all, there would be a boat landing protest that night "Hey! Save a walleye - spear an Indian!" I guess it's us Indians that are ruining the lakes takin' all the fish Some people don't want to know the truth why we spearfish - why fish are dying

I wore my AIM jacket to the Crandon mining development It's not on reservation land so its o.k. Us Indians shouldn't bother, 'cause we just want to be on TV Tommy Thompson said so! Where do the waters run, Governor Thompson?

I wore my AIM jacket to the Peltier march knowing some of our AIM brothers and sisters wore their jackets to prison

I wore my AIM jacket to the World Series a while back Atlanta Braves vs. Cleveland Indians didn't know who to root against - the tomahawk chop or the Indian logo with the s---faced grin on it At least UW Whitewater gave up “Willie Warhawk!”

I wore my AIM jacket today stared and nobody glared because nobody cared because nobody even knows -John Webb-

Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 187

Native American Music Today Besides traditional music, many Native American musicians today incorporate folk, rock and other musical elements into songs that concern Native American culture and issues. Today, one can hear Jack Gladstone (Blackfoot tribe) singing about extinct tribes or giving us a song about the great Jim Thorpe. Carlos Nakai, Fernando Cellacion, and Cornell Pewewardy do exemplary Native American flute recordings. Anakwad (a.k.a. Frank Montano, Ojibwe) can play flute with wolves howling, sing to us about life on the reservation, or about the spearfishing issue. Other recent notable flutists are Billy Whitefox, Douglas Blue Feather, Eddie Three Eagles, Robert Tree Cody, and Terry Tsotigh.

Keith Secola (country style) and Russell Means (rap) joked about an Indian Car (a beat-up old clunker). Russell Means can also remind us of the reoccupation of Wounded Knee in 1973, while John Trudell can give scathing accounts of abuses toward Native Americans on one song, and recite beautiful poetry about mother Earth in another song. Paul Ortega (country blues), Bill Miller, and Burt Guibord can give us more lessons from the native perspective.

Musical taste and style are as diverse among Native Americans as among the remainder of American society. In addition to preserving music from past generations, contemporary Native musicians such as the Porcupine Singers (Lakota) produce new songs in traditional styles. New age, jazz, country, and rock groups have been formed by musicians from all tribal backgrounds. Native composers and performers are also active in producing symphonic works, including , chamber works, symphonies, and operas. Although the styles and forms have changed, contemporary Native American music deals with important social issues, provides entertainment, honors the "Indian way" (traditional lifestyles and beliefs), and incorporates elements of traditional music, including the use of vocables, Native instruments, and Native languages.

Native musicians using popular genres have synthesized elements of Native American music and Western popular sounds. For example, instruments may include Native drums, rattles, and flutes in addition to the drum sets, , pianos, and of contemporary popular styles. Waila music, popularly known as "chicken scratch", is performed throughout southern Arizona by Tohono O'oodham, Pima, and Maricopa musicians, and resembles a hybrid of Native American, Hispanic, and band music of the Midwest. Lyrics may be in a Native language, in English, or any combination of English, a tribal language, and vocables. It sounds more like Mexican norteño music, and is mentioned in more detail in our discussion of Mexico.

Tom Bee's "Nothing Could Be Finer Than a Forty-Niner" includes Native instruments, descriptions of popular Native dance styles, quotations from a Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 188

traditional social dance song ("One-Eyed Ford"), and the vocables "be bop a lu la" from Gene Vincent's early 1960's rock tune. Sharon Burch creates haunting folk- rock style melodies with Navajo lyrics and themes concerning tribal issues and traditional ceremonies.

More prominent Native American performers in these syncretic styles combining more than one musical traditions include Buddy Red Bow (country), Tom Bee and XIT (rock), Red Thunder (rock), Jackalope (jazz-fusion, termed "synthacousticpunkarachinavajazz" by members of the group), and Joanne Shenandoah (). R. Carlos Nakai performs not only with Jackalope but also with other artists, including William Eaton and Peter Kater in a series of flute recordings in many combinations of backgrounds. Nakai has also recorded a number of traditional Native American flute . Mary Youngblood and Verdell Primeaux have gained significant popularity.

Floyd Red Crow Westerman, a well-known Native American actor, took to the guitar and sang songs about the mankind’s abuse of the environment and of our sacred leaders. John Rainer, Jr., a member of the Taos tribe, bridges the gap between traditional Native American and symphonic works with his Songs for the American Indian Flute, Volumes I and 2 (Red Willow Songs). Songs are presented in a strictly traditional style on one side of each album, but on the other, contemporary accompaniments and orchestrations have been created for the songs through the use of and studio orchestration techniques.

The collaborative efforts of R. Carlos Nakai and James DeMars have created a series of works featuring Native American flute and chamber orchestra. "Premonitions of Christopher Columbus," from Spirit Horses (Canyon Records CR 7014), uses Native American flute to represent the original settlers of the Western continents, the violoncello to represent European cultural influences, African percussion to represent African cultural influences, and the saxophone to represent the "new Americans" in a concerto grosso format. Mohican composer Brent Michael Davids composed "Mtukwekok Naxkomao" ("The Singing Woods") for the Kronos Quartet, incorporating an Apache violin, specially constructed instruments, and fragments of Native American melodies in what may well be the first string quartet composed by an indigenous composer. Louis Ballard (of the Cherokee-Quapaw) has composed many works in all symphonic genres. In addition, Ballard was the first Native American composer to conduct a major symphony orchestra. Joseph Firecrow”s " - Parmly's Dream” with the Billings Symphony was nominated for an award at the Native American Music Awards 2005.

CARLOS SANTANA DEDICATES NEW CD TO AMERICAN INDIANS

Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 189

Legendary Mexican and American rock guitarist, Carlos Santana, released his new CD, Shape Shifter, a 13-song all instrumental recording on his new label, Starfaith Records, on May 15th, 2012. Shape Shifter is the 36th CD from this superior musician with tremendous notoriety and sensitivity. Shape Shifter features tracks spanning from the late 1990’s through the present-day, powered throughout with Carlos’ instantly recognizable virtuoso lead guitar and the Santana Band’s world-class musicianship. His new CD has been featured on News from Indian Country TV, and was a featured guest on the nationally syndicated program, "Native America Calling."

Carlos is dedicating Shape Shifter to all Native Americans, the first people of this land, and acknowledging Australia's 2008 apology to the Aborigines, and President Obama's signing of the 2009 Native American Apology Resolution. He says, "I encourage any and all countries (that have not as yet done so) to acknowledge the first people of their land, and make this a collective global effort."168

Another way to keep track of the latest contemporary Native American musicians and their music is to check out the Native American Music Awards website for updates at http://www.nativeamericanmusicawards.com

Winners for 2013 (NAMA) were:

ARTIST OF THE YEAR Tony Duncan (Apache Arikara, Hidatsa) – Earth Warrior

BEST BLUES RECORDING Up From The Ashes – Mitch Walking Elk (Cheyenne/ Arapaho)

168 http://www.nativeamericanmusicawards.com/news.cfm Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 190

BEST COMPILATION RECORDING The Longest Walk: Reversing Diabetes –– Lorena Windfeather Navarez

BEST COUNTRY RECORDING Ali Fontaine - Ali Fontaine (Ojibway)

DEBUT ARTIST OF THE YEAR Ryan Little Eagle Molina (Lakota) – Straight From The Heart

DEBUT DUO OR GROUP OF YEAR Big River Cree (Plains Cree) - The Old Way

Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 191

BEST FEMALE ARTIST Fawn Wood (Cree) – Iskewewak: Songs of Indigenous Womanhood

BEST FOLK/AMERICANA RECORDING Spirit of a Woman - Kelly Jackson (Lac du Flambeau)

BEST FLUTE RECORDING Joseph FireCrow (Northern Cheyenne) – Night Walk

BEST GOSPEL/INSPIRATIONAL RECORDING The Desire of Nations - Honey Dawn Karima and Cloudwalker (Creek/Cherokee/Cree)

Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 192

GROUP OF THE YEAR Big City Indians featuring Roy E Pete (Navajo) - Tuwa

HISTORICAL / LINGUISTIC RECORDING – Celebrate - Kalan Wi (Salish)

BEST INSTRUMENTAL RECORDING Native Colors: Homeland Nation Soundtrack - Rickey Medlocke (Lakota/Choctaw)

BEST MALE ARTIST Wayne Silas Jr (Oneida) – True Round Dance Songs

BEST NEW AGE RECORDING Among The Ancients - Rushingwind & Mucklow (Cahuilla) Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 193

BEST POP RECORDING Stay With Me Baby - Jana Mashonee (Lumbee)

BEST POW WOW RECORDING Memories - Emmanuel Black Bear (Lakota)

BEST PRODUCER Francois Couture – Yahndawa’

BEST RAP/HIP HOP RECORDING Love Me Down – Ralphael Deas (Apache)

Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 194

RECORD OF THE YEAR Shi Keyah – Songs For The People - Radmilla Cody (Dine’)

BEST ROCK RECORDING Find My Way - Saving Damsels (Navajo & Hopi)

SONG/SINGLE OF THE YEAR Hear My Cry - Frank Waln & Cody Blackbird (Rosebud Sioux)

SONGWRITER OF THE YEAR Peter Sackaney (Constance Lake) - Where Love Belongs

Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 195

BEST SPOKEN WORD RECORDING – I Am Woman, Kwe – Lena Recollect (/Ojibway/Pottawatami)

BEST TRADITIONAL RECORDING Tsionathonwisen - Akwesasne Women Singers (Mohawk)

BEST SHORT FORM MUSIC VIDEO A Tribute To Our Heros – “Go Rest High On that Mountain” – CC Murdock (Shoshone/Paiute)

BEST LONG FORM MUSIC VIDEO Homeland Nation (Various) – Rickey Medlocke

BEST WAILA RECORDING In Loving Memory – T.O. Combo (Tohonor O’odham)

Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 196

BEST RECORDING Hostiles & Renegades - Gary Small & the Coyote Bros (Northern Cheyenne)

NATIVE HEART Sybille Hummingbird - Serenity

LIVING LEGEND Nelly Furtado169

HALL OF FAME Russell Means170

169 http://www.manataka.org/page2669.html - the complete list comes from this website. 170 http://www.nativeamericanmusicawards.com/2013awards.cfm

Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 197

Contemporary Native American musical life is extraordinarily diverse, encompassing every sound and style of music performed on the North American continent. Despite evolutions of style and use of contemporary sound and techniques, Native American musicians keep "one foot planted firmly in tradition," placing an indelibly Native American stamp upon modern music.

We all learn valuable lessons by including (as opposed to ignoring) the Native American perspective, as well as perspectives of other cultures of this great country. That is why this book exists. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 198

African American Music in the United States

Africa - The Mother Country The continent of Africa, roughly four times the size of the U.S., is a tremendously diverse country with many nations, many influences, and many languages. In 2009 it was reported that the population of Africa had exceeded one billion for the first time and a year later, figures claimed that numbers in the continent had reached 1,022,234,000. All of these statistics make Africa the second most populous continent on the planet, behind Asia.171

There are some 3000 tribes speaking 800 to 1000 distinct languages, making Africa one of the most musically diversified regions of the world. The main language groups are the Bantu-speaking peoples of Central and Southern Africa, the Nilo- Saharan from the northeastern region, and the Niger-Congo language speakers of West Africa.172 In addition to many indigenous African tribes, there are also Arabic, Islamic, Indian, and European influences. The continent has survived going from slavery and colonization to independence and democracy in a comparatively short time, and is still undergoing many rapid changes. The geographical variety of the continent - from the mountains and the vast desert of the north to the wide Savannah belt, the central rain forests and the fertile southern coast - is reflected in a multiplicity of musical styles.

The oldest remains of man were discovered in east and central Africa some one and three-quarter million years ago. Around 3400 BC, the world's first great civilization was established in Egypt, and by 100 AD the Bantu people migrated from what is now southern Zaire to settle throughout Africa south of the equator. About 1100 AD the stone city of Zimbabwe was constructed, while in West Africa the gold-rich empire of Ancient Ghana was about to be absorbed into the Songhai Empire of Mali which reached its zenith in the early 1300's. The African coast was not explored by Europeans until the Portuguese in the late fifteenth century. This was about the time Columbus ‘discovered’ America, although there is some evidence to suggest that Africans arrived in the New World centuries before him. . . The interior of the 'Dark Continent' was not investigated by Europeans until Mungo Park's travels in 1795. During those millennia African society changed very little.173

171 http://worldpopulationreview.com/population-of-africa/ 172 Graeme Ewens, Africa O-Ye! A Celebraton of African Music. New York: Da Capo Press, 1992, pp. 10-11. 173 Ewens, pp. 13-14. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 199

In Africa, music is a complete expression of life; therefore, various lifestyles have significant influences on the music. In East Africa, the cultures are complex and revolve around cattle. The Khoi-San area of southern Africa has a simple culture dependent mainly on the nomadic gathering of food. The northwestern African coast lacks cattle and is characterized by an elaborate political organization which, before the imposition of European rule, gave rise to powerful kingdoms. The west coast of Africa between the Khoi-San area and the northwestern part has a combination of the east African and northwest African traits. A number of Pygmy tribes are still living in relative isolation in the jungle. The northern part of the continent is largely under the influence of the Islamic musical culture.

The Impact of African Music The impact of African musical influences in the U.S. has been staggering. It is difficult to imagine what much of the music in the U.S. would sound like today without the African and (later) African American influence. The Western (European) musical tradition, when combined with Africa, has created the genres of jazz, blues, , rock n' roll, soul, funk, contemporary R&B, and hip hop. In the Americas, the black influence has created the styles of calypso, samba, bossa nova, rumba, , salsa, zouk, and others. Subsequently, all of these styles have come back to the mother country, influencing current African music, making Africa one of the centers of world music. "Since the late 1980's, musicians from Algeria, Mali, Guinea, Senegal, , Nigeria, Zaire, Zimbabwe, and South Africa have all had varying degrees of success with international record company contracts.174

When noting which types of African peoples most directly influenced the music in the U.S., the indigenous tribes in the coastal regions of West Africa, especially from Senegal to Ghana, who were taken against their will in the days of the slave trade and brought to the Americas were by far the strongest in number and influence. The few people taken from the interior of the continent often were in West Africa in an unenviable prisoner-of-war status.

174 Ewens, p. 8. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 200

Map of West Africa175

African Traditional Music In Africa, there has always been a high retention of indigenous culture through the practice of oral tradition, and today, the music is also being preserved through recordings and videos. "The Western world has started to wake up to the vibrant contemporary sound of Africa, where modern instruments and hi-tech production standards blow away any misconceptions about primitive 'jungle drums'."176

In Europe, musical performances typically sought to create and combine sounds pleasing to the ear for purposes of entertainment. Often, entertainment was a commercial commodity to be bought and paid for. In Africa, most traditional music was not a performance, but served a function, and sounds were created to express life in all aspects, particularly to directly reflect African environment and society. Much of the traditional music was considered to be a sacred or creative act, which was not to be bought or sold. While Europeans imitated nature through sounds on manufactured instruments, Africans preferred to use the actual sounds of nature, and would make instruments out of materials from their immediate surroundings.

175 www.cpj.org/Briefings/2000/Bekoutou/map.html 176 Ewens, p. 8. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 201

In Europe, music was something to be taught through lessons, or at school, whereas in Africa, children participated in learning and performing music at the earliest possible age, because music was and still is an integral part of life from birth to death. Music was associated with daily activities such as religious ceremonies, work, sales, messages, social games, and education. Whenever possible, everyone participated through playing, singing, dancing, or working. The concept of music for entertainment did exist in Africa, but the idea of music exclusively for entertainment is a relatively new one.

To say that music is a part of life in Africa is an understatement. In many African cultures music has a greater significance than human life. It is often believed to have pre-dated the existence of man and remains the main conduit for communication with the Gods. . . Music is so much a part of mortal life that no major African language has a word for 'music' in general - only for the various forms it takes.177

In Zaire, the Pende people virtually sing their way through life, even conducting council meetings and criminal trials in song.178 Often in sad occasions such as funerals, the grief displayed is often balanced with a sense of euphoria and celebration; so that pride is mixed with shame, and strength is mixed with weakness (much like the happy face-sad face mask in theatrical tradition). It is no surprise that this tradition is still shown in the U.S. in the New Orleans funerals, where grief and celebrations go together in a respectful way. Songs of praise, so important in Africa, remain a huge influence in the creation of African American despite the suffering and grief brought about by slavery and its repercussions.

African Instruments Traditional instruments in Africa include the families of chordophones, aerophones, idiophones, and membranophones. The string family in Africa (chordophones) includes fiddles, lutes, harps, zithers, the , and the one-string song bow. The one-string bow is still played in Angola and Central Africa, and is the earliest form of harp, where the sound is obtained by striking the tensed string with a stick.179

177 Ewens, p. 10. 178 Ewens, p. 14. 179 Ewens, p. 19. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 202

Obu man playing a musical bow, Obubra, Nigeria, 1909-1913.

The kora is one of the most impressive stringed instruments found in Africa, both in appearance and in the enchanting quality of the melodies that a skilled player can coax from its calabash sound box. It is a large instrument, with a hard, rosewood neck up to four feet long, and the calabash (gourd) sound box is up to about two feet in diameter.180

This unique instrument has a harp-like appearance and a notched bridge similar to that of a lute or guitar. It sounds somewhat like a harp, but its intricate playing style can be closer to flamenco guitar. The first known reference to the kora comes from Mungo Park in his 1799 book, Travels in Interior Districts of Africa. The kora's body is made from a calabash gourd cut in half and partially covered with cow skin.

180 Ewens, p. 20. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 203

Traditionally, there are twenty-one playing strings plucked by the thumb and forefinger of each hand. The remaining fingers grip the two vertical hand posts. For strings, players use fishing line, which provides a brillant tone and is easily obtained at the local market. Twenty-one anchor strings attach the playing strings to an iron ring bored through the base of the kora's hardwood neck. The player tunes the kora by moving the leather rings to achieve the appropriate tension on each string. Kora players use a variety of tunings.181

182 The Kora

Durham, North Carolina-based kora player Mamadou Diabate took home his first Grammy Award in the category of Best Traditional World Music Album for the recording "Douga Mansa" at the 52nd annual Grammy Awards (2010).183

181 culturalexplorers.com/ethiopia/ethiopiamusic.htm 182 Ibid. 183 http://www.heraldsun.com/view/full_story/5717915/article-Durham-kora-player-wins-Grammy

Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 204

The banjo is also said to be of African origin. A banjo-like instrument was brought over from Africa during the days of slavery, but it is also believed that the instrument may have come from the Arabs first – via Africa; with the instrument evolving to its present-day form in the United States.

A number of aerophones, made of wood, metal, horn, bamboo, clay, gourds, and sea shells have been made into flutes, trumpets, whistles, and pan pipes (possibly from ancient Greece). Islamic cultures use reed instruments, although these have not penetrated south of the Sahara. The use of ivory trumpets up to eight feet long may be found in Zaire, while the use of horns is primarily for ceremonies.184

Many kinds of percussion instruments (idiophones) may be found, including rattles, bells, slit-log drums, and mallet instruments, such as those resembling marimbas and xylophones, where pre-tuned keys are hit with a mallet. In Tanzania both instruments share the name , which in some southern African traditions is the name of the mother of the universe, and is an instrument of great antiquity. There are many types of xylophones in Africa, including those with free-floating keys, laid over the player's knees.185 In general the African balafon (an African xylophone) is smaller with a narrower range than the marimba. It is typically one octave higher than the marimba.

The African balafon is pictured here with gourds underneath to provide a sound chamber for each note. Each instrument comes with two beaters.186

184 Ewens, pp. 22-23. 185 Ewens, pp. 21-22. 186 www.earthvibemusic.com/kambala.htm Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 205

African marimba with gourd resonators and tuned to pentatonic (5-note) scale187

A thumb piano, or sanza, is also a member of this family. It should be noted that the thumb piano is more properly known under a variety of African names including kalimba, likembe, marimba, or mbira. The sound of the thumb piano is much like the wooden-keyed xylophone, marimba, or balafon, and often assumes the role of accompaniment.

Treble kalimba – several reeds or tines are plucked with the thumb or fingers, and the reed vibrations are amplified by a hollow box resonator or a sounding board.188

187 picasaweb.google.com/.../CKrse47L3tn9HjUAe5NCHg 188 www.answers.com/topic/kalimba-1 Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 206

Last, there are many membranophones, which primarily are all types of drums - large wooden drums, small log drums, wooden frames, earthenware pots, gourds, turtle shells, garbage cans or anything that one can stretch a skin over!

In some ethnic groups, drumming is restricted to certain classes of society, and often based on a hereditary role. In other nations anybody can drum on certain instruments, but most cultures have drums which either are or were reserved for sacred functions. Most drums have a fixed pitch, while others are tuned by altering the tension of the skin during play. The hourglass shaped, double-headed talking drums from West Africa are made to speak by changing tension on the thongs which link the two skins. With the instrument held under one arm, the player squeezes the speech from the drum. Other types of talking drums in West and Central Africa are large free-standing pairs in different sizes with complementary tones or voices, and are played with sticks.189

The talking drum is held under the arm and played with a hard, bent beater. Squeezing the drum changes the pitch, thus the instrument talks with 190 the person.

Ghanaian-born Mohammed Shaibu leads the -based band, Soyaya, with virtuoso acoustic guitar, dynamic talking drum, and lively vocals. The music is a combination of West African Highlife, Palm Wine, and indigenous Rhythm and Blues. His renditions of children’s nursery songs on the talking drum delight audiences of all ages.191

189 Ewens, pp. 22. 190 www.earthvibemusic.com/kambala.htm 191 http://gansango.com/artists/

Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 207

Much of African music is based on speech. In fact, the bond between language and music is so intimate that drums can be tuned so that the music it produces is linguistically comprehensible based on the rhythms and tones produced. Additionally, the human body has often been used as a percussion instrument through the clapping of hands, leg slapping, and stamping for thousands of years before being taken up by twentieth century hip hoppers.192

The drum is so important in African society that it is sometimes equated with a man. Women must consequently treat it with the same respect that they would show towards their menfolk. In some African countries women are not even allowed to touch a drum under any circumstance, though Islam and European colonial influence have softened some of these traditions.

African Drumming Styles African drumming styles provide a means to study two important features of music. The first is call-response, which is quite simply a musical conversation, where one drummer beats a rhythm as a "call", and the group responds, repeating the same rhythm. In other cases, the leader may change and create a new rhythm, and the group will respond by repeating the same rhythm previously drummed regardless of the new rhythms of the leader. This process is also done vocally as well, where one vocalist sings a musical idea and the other vocalists respond. Call-response can also occur between voice and instruments, the latter of which became an integral part of African American music. Call-response is used in most all cultures, but in the African culture it has always played a major part. This tradition remains essential to African-American music.

The second integral part of African music is the combining or "stacking" of rhythms, one on top of each other. While this is nothing new to the musical world, the layering of complex syncopated rhythms in the drumming groups combines to create very complicated music. To the uneducated listener, the rhythms may sound like chaos, but rest assured, drumming groups require a sophisticated sense of rhythm. When transferred to musical instruments in the U.S., the syncopated African rhythms were the foundation of ideas used by jazz drummers. A jazz drummer typically would use four different rhythms beginning with the bass drum, hi-hat, ride cymbal, and toms/snare. Along with the drums, the stacking of complex rhythms became the very foundation for the early jazz rhythm sections (drums, bass/tuba, guitar/banjo, and piano). In many cases, the rhythms these instruments played coincided with or complimented the rhythms that the drums set up.

192 Ewens, p. 11. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 208

Titambe West Ensemble193

The stacking or combining two or more rhythms is known as "polyrhythms", which are common in African music. Polymeters are just as frequent, and occur where the combination of more than one metrical grouping is present. This involves the juxtaposition of duple and triple meters, which usually creates considerable rhythmic complexity. Even though two or more meters are played simultaneously, the combination of sounds is thought of as one unit.

Drums are certainly not the only instrument in existence; thus it is very important to dispel the myth that drums and other percussion are the only instruments in traditional African music!

Vocals and Melody The voice is the original and most important musical instrument in Africa, just like it is in today. Many African languages are based on tones, in that meanings of words change depending on the pitch of the word being sung. This made it logical to transfer these sung words to the drums, enabling people to communicate

193 http://cloquetlibrary.blogspot.com/2011/06/african-drums-travel-to-library.html

Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 209

through "talking" drums. A combination of rhythms on different pitched drums would enable fairly complex messages to be related over long distances.

Even guitar and saxophone phrases have been 'interpreted' by music fanatics as subtle threats, insults or warnings to rival musicians. When the Africans' love of word play is taken into account, these meanings can be stretched indefinitely. Making witty, topical puns with secret, 'in-crowd' significance can be fun. . .194

While melody may appear to be less important on the surface than rhythmic elements, it is the 'interplay and impersonation' between melody and rhythm that creates the power of African music. Melodic instruments and vocal lines are as dependent on rhythmic pulse as the so-called rhythmic or percussion instruments which invariably manage to create a kind of parallel melody of their own.195

The Griot While it seems as if everyone in traditional Black Africa is a musician of sorts, it would be a mistake to assume that all Africans are necessarily musicians in the full sense of the word. In many African societies music is a dynamic and driving force that animates the life of the entire community, but much communal music can be quite elaborate in form. In some societies musicians form a semi-professional group. They earn their livelihood from their music for only part of the year and rely on some other activity for the remainder of the time.

In other African societies, the right to play certain instruments or to participate in traditional ceremonies is not open to all, but is the privilege of the professional musician. Such musicians live solely by their art and belong to particular families or castes. The ancient West African bardic craft known as Jaliyaa is a testament to the power of music and words. The wordsmiths of West Africa are popularly referred to as “Griots,” but in the West African language of Bamanakan or Mande Kan, they are known as Jali or Jeli (plural is Jeliw or Jalolu), depending on the region you travel into. A female griot is referred to as a Jelimuso or Jalimuso (muso meaning “woman”). The craft of the griot, Jaliyaa, is traditionally, passed down from father to son and mother to daughter.196

The role of the griot extends far beyond the realm of music and magic. Griots store massive amounts of information in song narratives. In a traditional society based on oral tradition, he or she is the “singing library” of history, philosophy, family, social events, satire, humor, love, conversations between people, and many other facets of daily life. He or she dispenses a healing therapy for the medicine

194 Ewens, p. 13. 195 Ewens, p. 13. 196 www.babathestoryteller.com Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 210

man. He or she is a praise-singer, a troubadour - the counterpart of the medieval European minstrel. Griots often sing and play a number of instruments as well. Under African military regimes musicians have often been more outspoken than politicians, although total immunity is never guaranteed.197

People fear griots, but at the same time admire them. They are often treated with contempt because they belong to one of the lowest castes:

Although the griot caste is among the lowest in the social hierarchy...griots are nevertheless much admired for their talent, and they can make a great deal of money. Among them, one can find the most virtuosic of singers and instrumentalists. Their education and training, exclusively oral, necessitates a lenghty apprenticeship under the direction of a teacher - most often the father, or an uncle. It is necessary to study for many years in order to master the technique of an instrument or to learn all the songs and histories, and master the ensemble work indispensable to the activities of the professional. Some griots are more or less sedentary, and their renown is confined to the limits of their village or territory. (In this case, the griot will also work at another job: fisherman, farmer, etc.) Other griots are itinerants, and their reputation and income can vary considerably.198

The fact that music is at the heart of all of the griot's activities is yet further proof of the vital part he or she plays in African life. The equivalent of the griot in equatorial Africa is the player of the (harp-zither). This person is, in some ways, more fortunate than the griot because the admiration that he enjoys is not tinged with scorn, maybe because he does not normally sing the praises of the rich and powerful like the griot does. The Griot tradition is strongest in areas of West Africa that are primarily Islamic but include significant communities of both Chirstians and adherents of traditional tribal religions.199 Contrary to early European beliefs, the griots were not "witch doctors", but they do possess an extraordinary ability to commit thousands of songs to memory!

197 Ewens, pp. 11-12. 198 www.geocities.com/.../griots_west_africa.htm 199 Ibid. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 211

Karibuni Radio & Music Africa present – Senegalese griot Zale Seck200

African Stylistic Characteristics The main characteristics of the west coast are a keen metronomic sense and the concept of "hot rhythm" – the simultaneous use of several meters with complex rhythms, and the call-response style of singing with overlap between leader and chorus. The central African area is distinguished by its great variety of instruments and musical styles and by the emphasis in polyphony on the interval of the third. East Africa has, for centuries, been somewhat under Islamic influence, though by no means to as great an extent as the northern half of Africa. Vertical fifths (giving a quasi-western sound) are more prominent here, rhythmic structure is not so complex, and percussion instruments are not so prominent. The Khoi-San musical area (South Africa) is similar in style to East Africa, but has simpler forms and instruments. It contains a good deal of music performed with the hocket technique, as does the Pygmy sub-area of central Africa, which is also characterized by the presence of a vocal technique similar to yodeling.

Improvisation is a technique that is in all musical cultures, but in Africa, it is an integral part of the music. Often improvisation is done by a leader through

200 www.lulalounge.ca/.../artists/Z/zaleseck400.jpg

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embellishment of a vocal melody or a drum rhythm. Many griots were masters of this process, and were also exceptional in the creation of lyrics to tell a story. Later, when slaves were forced to the western hemisphere, improvisation became a focal point in African American music. One word of caution may be noted when listening to African drumming groups. A good deal of this music may have an improvised quality to it because of its complexity, but much of what goes on is not improvised, and must be executed with exact precision.

In most indigenous tribal , harmony was not originally a concept. The opposite is true today, since much of African music has adapted well to harmonic concepts. All of the modern instruments exist in Africa today as well, including electronic instruments.

It is often forgotten that prior to the European trade in African slaves, many slaves, especially from East Africa (including Nubians and people from the Kenya region) were transported to the Arabian Peninsula in the Arab slave trade. The Arab penetration into Africa started 1300 years ago. The voice, tonality and language of Islam have not only heavily influenced North African music, but also sub-Saharan African music in countries such as Mali, Nigeria, Senegal and even Tanzania and Madagascar. Later European invasions influenced this music again. A modern North African style called rai (meaning “opinion”) has established a keen following in Europe, and is influencing music in France especially.

The instruments of the Arab world and North Africa are believed to have been the original models for almost all Western instruments from the guitar and the violin to the trumpet and other wind instruments. Not many kinds of drums are used in Islamic music. The North African music today shows a cultural continuity which goes back to before AD 500. Classical Arab music itself was a fusion of pre- Islamite Arab music with Persian and Turkish elements.

Dance and Movement "Dance is often claimed to be the original art form, even pre-dating song, and in Africa it is indivisible from music."201 Music without movement was not a concept in many cases. Most dance moves are done for specific purposes, with a multitude of meanings, and are not improvised body movements. For example, among the Akan, dance language has a lexicon of symbolic movements which can be made with all parts of the body. E.A. Duodu of the University of Ghana has published a list of some 40 such gestures for many occasions. The gestures can represent congratulations, expressions of love, loyalty, reverence, guilt, innocence, or can be an arm gesture which tells the drummers they have been promised a drink. Another less

201 Ewens, p. 17. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 213

complimentary gesture could regard someone as a 'toilet roll'! Ritual dancing, as a form of personal expression or physical release, tends to be more improvised. The spiritual function of dance keeps people in touch with the ancestors through contact with the earth, bringing the living together in one mystical experience, in which control of the body is given up to music.202

Music in Africa Today Today in Africa, music is constantly in metamorphosis, adapting to a changing world, bridging the traditional with the contemporary, yet has remained an all-important cultural expression that constantly demonstrates its vibrant diversity. Africa has influenced the world with its vibrant musical culture, but simultaneously, the evolution of African music blended with Western and Eastern cultures have returned to Africa and invigorated the local African music. "Western" music was introduced to Africa through visiting musicians, record sales, and by radio. With the advent of brass, woodwinds, strings, electronic instruments, media, and new technology, African popular music was born.

In southern Africa, a European musical tradition exists in parallel to the black African one. It is interesting to note that much of the earlier Afrikaans (Dutch) of the Cape has its origins in the Indonesian archipelago, resulting from the importation of slaves by the Dutch. Chinese and especially Indians imported into South Africa by the British had an impact on South African music also, as had the music of the native black cultures. During the Afrikaner nationalist era, much music was borrowed from Europe, especially Germany. Today, mainstream Afrikaans and English popular music sounds very European or American to most listeners.

One popular South African group, Ladysmith Black Mambazo, used music from the mines of South Africa, where workers sang songs a cappella (unaccompanied) in harmony at the end of the work week, using tip-toe so as to not disturb security guards in what was a society governed by many rules according to race and social class. These songs became a tradition and a musical competition as well.

202 Ewens, p. 18. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 214

Ladysmith Black Mambazo203

Under the direction of Joseph Shabalala, LBM won numerous competitions. Ladysmith is the name of a town in South Africa, and black refers to black oxen, considered to be the strongest on the farms in the area, and "mambazo" refers to an ax - symbolic of the ability of the group to "chop down the competition." 's Graceland album in 1985 used this group, and attracted a world of fans who never had previously heard the captivating Zulu harmonies. The group has over thirty albums, and sung at Nelson Mandela's presidential inauguration in 1994. The group today represents an old tradition, previously suppressed, that can now be sung with pride and dignity.

The popular music of the continent is in most cases the product of two parents, one African, the other external. African pop styles have become centralized, clustered around the main cultural or commercial centers, so there is 'Manding swing' or 'electro griot' music from West Africa (between Senegal, Guinea and Niger), the 'Swahili sound' from East Africa (between Uganda and Tanzania), '' and jazz from the south (around South Africa). There is Muslim music from the north (between Morocco and Egypt), makossa and 'liberation' music in-between (the area between Cameroon and , and between Zimbabwe and Mozambique respectively), and pan-African syntheses like 'highlife' and Congo-Zairean rumba or soukous which have radiated furthest from their points of origin (the area between Sierra Leone and Nigeria and the Congo-Zairean area respectively).

203 http://www.bowdoin.edu/news/events/archives/002771.shtml

Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 215

Many other styles - too many to mention here - are prevalent throughout the continent. The musical traditions of Africa will survive and grow as the popularity of African music spreads around the globe, which will foster a better understanding and appreciation of Africa and its cultures everywhere.

Forced Migration As millions of slaves were brought to the Americas under despicable conditions, some were taken to the U.S., and others went to the Caribbean and the east coast of South America. From the gold Coast (Ghana) region, Ashanti and Fanti people were shipped out to North America and the Caribbean by predominantly British slavers. The South American population was more of Bantu origin (Angola and Mozambique), with Spanish and Portuguese slavers operating further south, although Yorubas were also shipped in large numbers to Cuba and Brazil.204

The great majority of the plantations owned by Catholics were in the Caribbean and South America, and the Protestant-owned plantations were far more predominant in the U.S. The attitudes of the Catholic plantation owners were to be strict in discipline, but they also allowed more religious and cultural freedom as long as work was properly done, which meant that in many cases, African musical traditions were allowed to survive for centuries, which explains why much of the black-influenced music in South America and the Caribbean is very African-sounding.

Protestant plantation owners were said to be somewhat less cruel physically than their Catholic counterparts, but, far more than the Catholics, they were compelled to force changes in the religion and music of Blacks in the U.S. Considerable time was devoted to converting slaves to Christianity and to European-American traditions, and it was a strong belief for many that their African cultural roots should be completely iradicated. It was precisely these forced changes that led to the combining of European and African elements, and out of this came new musical styles.

The Effect of Slavery in the U.S. As black culture changed gradually in the Americas outside the U.S., the suppression of the African way of life in the U.S. created forced changes at an accelerated rate. Despite attempts of those enforcing the system of slavery to completely annihilate African cultural aspects through cruelty, denial of cultural rights, and the separation of the families, many "Africanisms" remained. Like Native Americans, traditional African practices were conducted in secret, and were ordained by the dominant culture to be devil worship, savage, pagan, etc. The attempts to

204 Ewens, p. 26. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 216

completely stamp out a culture created an entirely new culture that retained African and European ideas. As people of African descent adapted to a more European lifestyle that became all-encompassing, there was one vital element missing - one of human rights.

It took hundreds of years for the idea of slavery to lose its grip. John Newton (1725-1807), the British slavetrader turned-minister penned “Amazing Grace” around 1772. Most of us know the first verse:

Amazing grace, how sweet the sound, that saved a wretch like me. I once was lost but now am found, was blind but now I see.

Although Newton coverted to Christianity at age 23, he did not give up being captain on a slave trading ship until the mid 1750’s and did not publicly oppose slavery until 1780, 8 years after writing the song.205 The point of this is that social changes throughout world history come very slowly.

The practice of enslavement has been well documented in our history, but its historical impact is often underestimated. Despite the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863, the U.S. and any other country that previously adopted slavery continue to endure social and economic problems as a result. While slavery happened a long time ago, its effects linger in subtle ways that are not always obvious. The “Star Spangled Banner” touted the ‘land of the free’ while endorsing slavery until the Civil War. Laws then were created to enforce segregation well into the twentieth century. The claim of ‘equal opportunity’ for all was and still is far easier for the upper-middle class and affluent in this country to make. Disproportionately, there are thousands of African Americans today who live in poverty, mainly because they have been and still are separated and shunned by the dominant society. There has been progress, and some African Americans enjoy the middle and upper class financial advantages, but that can make it easy for some to assume that blacks living in poverty are there because they are ‘lazy’, and wanting to live off of tax money from ‘hard working’ people. The fact remains that the odds remain heavily stacked against those living in ghettos today. How did this happen?

After the Civil War, the country was ill-equipped to face the problems of reconstruction and to create a post-slavery society. In the south, over four million African Americans were suddenly ‘free’ and in need of housing, food, clothing, education, and jobs. In 1865, few whites (south or north) were ready to welcome a

205 http://www.snopes.com/religion/amazing.asp

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race into mainstream society that had been previously considered ‘less than human’. As a result, a sophisticated post-slavery society evolved, where most African Americans were offered their ‘old jobs’ back. This system (known as sharecropping) offered poverty-level wages, small plots of land to farm, and ramshackle houses to live in as ‘exchange’ for the labor that was done before slavery. While wages were given, ‘expenses’ for tools, horses, or food usually equaled or exceeded wages earned. Black families were not allowed to leave until the ‘debt’ was paid off, and for most families, the debt would never be paid off. Sharecropping was not just a post-Civil War phenomenon, as it persisted well into the first half of the twentieth century.

There were some improvements worth noting after the Civil War. The family unit began to solidify for African Americans, as fewer were forced to endure the separation of family members that occurred on the auction blocks. Unfortunately, slavery has prevented most African Americans from being able to trace their family roots before the Civil War, as few written records were kept. Another challenge to the family unit was that if one did not participate in sharecropping, work could be very hard to find, so the older menfolk of a family often were forced to work jobs away from home for months at a time.

One of the greatest struggles facing the United States was the mammoth undertaking needed to provide education for millions of blacks where there had been none before. For example, in Georgia in 1829, a law had been passed making it a crime to teach slaves to read! While northern private benevolence and the federal government deserve credit for aiding black education, the primary impetus and sustaining force came from the state's African Americans. The first postwar schools were formerly clandestine schools, and finally began operating openly by January 1865. Literate black men and women opened new, self-sustaining schools. Northern freedmen's aid organizations began establishing schools in mid-1865.

Meanwhile, Congress created the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, popularly known as the Freedmen's Bureau, in March 1865. Though it did not hire teachers or operate schools itself, the bureau assisted the aid societies in meeting the burgeoning African American demand for education. It rented buildings for schoolrooms, provided books and transportation for teachers, superintended the schools, and offered military protection for students and teachers against the opponents of black literacy.

Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 218

Students of all ages crowded into Georgia's early freedmen's schools. Although teachers were usually portrayed as young northern white women, many were black men and women, and a significant number of them were southern blacks and whites.206

By the end of Reconstruction, the southern freedpeople had built the foundations of a system of universal schooling. Native and northern teachers had taught thousands of former slaves to read and write. In the final analysis, however, the freedpeople were too poor, and the assistance from the federal government and northern agencies was far too paltry to have more than a token effect. It is unlikely that more than 10 percent of the state's African American population could find a seat in a schoolhouse during Reconstruction.207

Despite the immense challenges African Americans faced since the Civil War, the power of the word "freedom" in itself was enough for many to face difficulties with a new heart, for the privilege to have basic rights cannot be underestimated, especially if those rights have been taken away.

Although slavery and its effects pervaded through the 19th and 20th centuries, there was considerable interaction between blacks and non-blacks, and much of this interaction created a genuine interest in the positive aspects of each other's

206 http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-634

207 Ibid. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 219

culture. Written accounts by whites about early black music were sketchy at best, and were done from a completely Eurocentric view. As the 19th century began; however, an intermingling of the two musical cultures were brought together even more by a phenomenon called the Great Awakening.

The Great Awakening The Great Awakening was the name given to the evangelical religious movement which began in the U.S. in the 18th and 19th centuries. The first wave began shortly after the arrival of European settlers in the early 1700's and resulted in the growth of the Presbyterian, Methodist, and Baptist Churches. The Second Great Awakening began in the last decade of the 18th century, and reached its peak in the second half of the 19th century in the revivalist oratory and hymnody of camp meetings and gatherings of the Salvation Army, the YMCA, and other Protestant affiliated sects.208

In the Appalachian region, the revival used and promoted the camp meeting, and took on characteristics similar to the First Great Awakening of the previous century. The camp meeting was a religious service several days in length using multiple preachers. Settlers in thinly populated areas looked to the camp meeting as a refuge from the lonely life on the frontier. The sheer exhilaration of participating in a religious revival with hundreds and even thousands of people inspired dancing, shouting, and singing. Besides meeting social needs, there was the profound impact on the individual's self esteem — shattered by a sense of guilt, then restored by a sense of personal salvation. Most of the converts joined small local churches, which grew rapidly.

One of the early camp meetings took place in July 1800 at Creedance Clearwater Church in southwestern Kentucky. A much larger gathering was held at Cane Ridge, Kentucky, in 1801, attracting perhaps as many as 20,000 people. Numerous Presbyterian, Baptist and Methodist ministers participated in the services. This event helped stamp the revival as a major mode of church expansion for Methodists and Baptists. Cane Ridge was also instrumental in fostering what became known as the Restoration Movement and the non-denominational type churches that were committed to the original Christianity of the New Testament (particularly the Christian Church, Disciples of Christ, and the Church of Christ).

Huge crowds would gather to hear preachers talk about the Bible and the singing of hymns would take place. The crowds that gathered numbered in the thousands, and numerous preachers would lead in the singing of hymns via the oral tradition. The

208 http://www.pbs.org/wnet/ihas/icon/revivalism.html

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newest concept in the second Great Awakening different than the first one was that anyone could be saved, regardless of race, creed, color, or previous sins. This increased the popularity of camp meetings, where the gospel was preached, hymns were sung, and blacks and whites stood side by side, worshipping together. Other new concepts campaigned for were: the abolitionist movement (abolishing slavery), women’s suffrage (right to vote), temperance (avoidance of alcohol), and reforming prisons.

Camp meeting sometime during the second Great Awakening209

As blacks and whites gathered to sing together, the differences in vocal styles were apparent while singing the same hymn. The religious fervor of the second Great Awakening likely was influenced by African religious practices, including lots of body movement, and the wails and cries of religious affirmations. A genuine interest in learning came out as a natural result - blacks tried to learn more church hymns, and whites absorbed some African American singing characteristics. A great number of camp meetings took place in Kentucky, the Tennessee Valley, and throughout the Appalachians. Although southern blacks were allowed time to worship, they then had to return to slave status. Nevertheless, the first musical intermingling of the two cultures on a large scale had begun, setting the stage for additional cultural interaction.

Minstrelsy As interest in black music increased in the early 1800's, it was natural for whites to imitate blacks in their lifestyle and music, just like blacks were imitating Euro- American styles. However, the early 19th century was not a kind time:

209 http://websupport1.citytech.cuny.edu/Faculty/pcatapano/industrialization05.html Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 221

Minstrel shows developed in the 1840’s, peaked after the Civil War and remained popular into the early 1900’s. Minstrelsy was a product of its time, the only entertainment form born out of blind bigotry. In these shows, white men blackened their faces with burnt cork to lampoon Negroes, performing songs and skits that sentimentalized the nightmare of slave life on Southern plantations. Blacks were shown as naive buffoons who sang and danced the days away, gobbling "chitlins," stealing the occasional watermelon, and expressing their inexplicable love for "ol' massuh."210

As popular and predjudiced as these traveling shows were, they served to create a significant interest in black music in the U.S. Unfortunately, negative stereotypes were solidified because by the 1840's and 1850's, the minstrel show became the most popular form of entertainment in the country, especially in the northern U.S. The music of the minstrel shows began to exhibit some African American characteristics such as increased emphasis on syncopation, and some vocal embellishments. The use of some melodies that used the pentatonic (five-note) scale common in some African songs became more commonplace, and the style became immensely popular. A depiction of the Virginia Minstrels is given:

DIM WERE the stage lights of New York in early 1843. With the country trying to shake off a nagging recession at the midpoint of the John Tyler administration, economic unease had trickled down to the theater. So it was splendid news on Feb. 6, when a show at the Bowery Amphitheater sparked the kind of buzz that could invigorate the whole theater scene. It was such a simple idea, too: Four white men coloring their faces with burnt cork and playing what they presented as the characters of Negroes - singing happy banjo tunes, mangling the language, laughin' and scratchin'.211

The Virginia Minstrels...212

210 http://www.musicals101.com/minstrel.htm 211 http://articles.nydailynews.com/2004-05-28/news/18257750_1_frank-brower-dan-emmett- theater-scene 212 http://black-face.com/minstrel-shows.htm Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 222

Over time, minstrel shows developed into a standard format of three parts, developed by Edwin Christy, incorporating skits and songs performed in an imitation of black plantation dialect. In the first part, the show began with a "walkaround"; the company marching onto the stage singing and dancing. A staple of walkaround was the . White audiences loved the cakewalk, not realizing that it originated with plantation slaves imitating their master's walk.

The troupe was then seated in a semicircle, with one member on each end playing the tambourine or the bones. The endmen were named Brother Tambo and Brother Bones, and they engaged in an exchange of jokes between the group's songs and dances. It was customary for Tambo to be slim and Bones to be fat. A character called Mr. Interlocutor sat in the middle of the group, acting as the master of ceremonies. As the interlocutor took his place in the middle of the semicircle he uttered the time-honored phrase: "Gentlemen, be seated. We will commence with the overture." During the performance he conducted himself in a dignified manner that contrasted well with the behavior of the rowdy endmen.

The Christy Minstrels - 1847

Part two (the olio) was the variety section and a precursor to vaudeville. It included singers, dancers, comedians, other novelty acts, and parodies of legitimate theater. A preposterous stump speech served as the highlight of this second act, during which a performer spoke in outrageous malapropisms as he lectured. His demeanor was reminiscent of the hilarious pomposity of Zip Coon; he aspired to great wisdom and intelligence, but his hilarious mangling of language always made him appear foolish and ignorant.

Part three ended the show with a one-act play, typically a vignette of carefree life on the plantation. After Uncle Tom's Cabin was published in 1852 and the play became famous, minstrel shows appropriated the major characters for sketches Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 223

that changed the abolitionist themes in the original into an argument for the supposedly benign character of slavery.

Although the structure of minstrel shows changed over time, the images, blackface, the content, and caricatures of blacks continued. Prior to the Civil War (1861- 1865), pro-slavery Whites used the racist stereotypes as a way of countering the abolitionist movement. Performers defended slavery by presenting denigrating stereotypes of blacks who supposedly needed the civilizing influence of slavery to keep them in check. Black slaves were portrayed as happy and content with their lot in life and fearful of life outside of the plantation.

With the dramatic increase in the popularity of minstrel shows in the years following emancipation, Whites continued to wear the blackface mask in performances that would serve to define the meaning of blackness for many Americans who by choice or geography had little contact with Blacks.213

One of the most famous minstrel composers of all was Stephen Foster (1826-1864), a resident of Cincinnati, Ohio who wrote a number of songs that were played in minstrel shows, such as "Old Folks at Home", "My Old Kentucky Home", "De Camptown Races", and "Old Black Joe". Nearly everyone today has heard a Stephen Foster song, yet few may realize that the minstrel shows and their prejudicial stereotyping were a vehicle for many of his songs. Foster only visited the south once, but that trip inspired a number of songs about the American South. To his credit, Foster was one of the first composers to portray African Americans as human beings that actually had feelings, emotions, and endured horrendous suffering as a result of the plantation system. Songs by Foster began to be used as fuel for the fire of the abolitionist movement of the 1850's, and Foster's tunes proved a need for emancipation.

213 http://black-face.com/minstrel-shows.htm (the previous full page is derived from this website).

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Stephen Foster

Once the Civil War ended, one might assume that the minstrel show would have met a hasty demise; yet, quite the opposite was true. One way out of the ruthless sharecropping system was for blacks to join the minstrel shows, and although the music became more authentic and furthered the popularity of black music, the derogatory stereotypes remained for decades after the Civil War. Audiences insisted that blacks whose skin was not dark enough to fit the stereotypical image had to be ‘darkened’ with the same ‘blackface’ that white people wore.

In the years following the Civil War, James Bland became America's first popular black composer with such minstrel hits as “O, Dem Golden Slippers” and “Carry Me Back to Old Virginny” (the official state song of Virgina from 1940-1997). Bland, (1854-1911), wrote hundreds of minstrel songs, and most performers of these songs never knew they were performing songs written by a black man. Bland was such a brilliant improvisational performer that he never bothered to write down more than three dozen of his 600-plus compositions. Like Foster, this composer of plantation songs was a Northerner with no direct experience of Southern life.214

214 Ibid. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 225

James Bland

The minstrel show continued to be popular into the early 1900’s, when it began to be supplanted by a new form of entertainment - vaudeville. Although minstrel shows became less popular, they continued on a limited basis as late as the 1950's. Even today, controversy arises over whether minstrel shows or bits of minstrel shows should be revived as part of American history in school plays, for the skits and songs contained stereotypes that are horrifying today. Yet, all of that created a significant interest in black music that would provide the spark for profound changes in American music of the twentieth century.

Jim Crow Backtracking a little, let’s see how ‘Jim Crow’ got started. Blackface acts were common features in circuses and traveling shows since the 1790’s. But, popularity moved to a new level in the 1820’s when white entertainer Thomas Dartmouth "Daddy" Rice caused a nationwide sensation by donning burnt cork to perform the song "Jump Jim Crow" on stage. He first heard it from an old deformed black street singer who supposedly made up the lyric about his own name:

First on de heel tap, Den on the toe Every time I wheel about I jump Jim Crow. Wheel about and turn about En do j's so. And every time I wheel about, I jump Jim Crow.

Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 226

"Jim Crow" turned out to be more than a popular song sung by a white minstrel performer. It became a routine and also the name of one of minstrelsy's stock comedy characters. As time went on; however, ‘Jim Crow’ also became an expression for legalized racial oppression. By the 1880’s, the term ‘Jim Crow’ had become synonymous with a complex system of racial laws and customs in the South that enabled white social, legal and political domination of blacks. Blacks were segregated, deprived of their right to vote, subjected to verbal abuse, discriminated against, and were constant victims of violence without redress in the courts or support by the white community.

‘Jim Crowism’ became a sensational act to be repeated time and time again, with thunderous applause from a separated society. And little did America know that one black man's deformity would end up defining the disfigurement of the nation for so long a time. It was significant that ‘Jim Crow’ was later used to describe segregation in all of its manifestations. Thus, minstrelsy also implied segregation, in spite of the joy of its musical worth.215

Al Jolson The most famous graduate of minstrelsy was Al Jolson. He toured with Dockstader's Minstrels before achieving lasting stardom in vaudeville, Broadway and Hollywood. Jolson immortalized blackface in several films, including the talking landmark The Jazz Singer (1928).

Jolson was not a racist. A Russian-born Jew, he openly befriended black performers at a time when it was unpopular to do so. In Jolson: The Legend Comes to Life (Oxford Univ. Press, NY, 1988, p. 171), historian Herbert Goldman tells of a night when the black songwriting team of Noble Sissle and Eubie Blake were refused service in a Hartford restaurant. Jolson heard about it, and the next night treated them to a meal and a private performance. Jolson and Blake remained friends from then onwards.

Jolson said that blackface gave him the emotional freedom he needed to take risks as a performer. As Goldman explains –

Although the medium was later vilified for insulting the black race, Jolson's blackface was probably more of a theatricalization than a caricature. The medium allowed him to show pluck and daring – an élan visible in the harlequin but also traceable in the black man's cultural approach to entertainment, sports and striking back, where possible, at white society and the subservient role it forced him to

215 Hildred Roach, Black American Music: Past and Present, 2nd edit. Malabar, FL: Krieger Publishing, 1992, p. 42. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 227

assume. . . There is a magic to his work in blackface that he never captured sans burnt cork.216

Considered one of the greatest entertainers of his time, Jolson's films are often dismissed as embarrassments today. Whatever his intentions were, the sight of a white man covered with burnt cork singing "Mammy" has become an unsettling reminder of the racial/cultural mindset that minstrelsy embodied.217

African American Contributions to Classical Music The contributions of African American composers and performers of classical music have been grossly underestimated and misrepresented in U.S. history. Since the nineteenth century, there have been numerous orchestra conductors, writers of classical compositions in many forms, and virtuoso performers, both men and women. There is no question that the classical genre has been enriched through the contributions of African American musicians. Some of the music was famous a century or two ago, but is nearly unknown today even to most fans of classical music. Many composers of African descent have won critical and popular acclaim, only to be neglected later. While this section could be a hundred pages, there is less emphasis here in this text because African Americans added to but did not completely shape the style as much as the other genres covered. Nevertheless, some of the most significant composers are given (listed by birth date):

Le Chevalier de Saint-George (1745-1799) One of two prominent Afro-French composers before the French Revolution. The other was Le Chevalier J.J.O. de Meude-Monpas. When Napoleon reinstituted slavery in the colonies in 1803, works of Black composers fell into official disfavor. The music of Saint-George and Meude-Monpas was seldom heard again before the 1970’s.

Francis Johnson (1792-1844) Bugler, popular band leader and one of five African American composers in Philadelphia during this time period. He published his first work, A Collection of New Cotillions, in that city in 1819. About 1830, Creole composers and musicians of color in New Orleans founded the Negro Philharmonic Society, a symphony orchestra comprised of more than 100 performers, including a few White members. Racial hostility put an end to the Society prior to the Civil War.

Justin Holland (1819-1887) Classical guitarist who composed for the instrument. Although Holland seldom performed in public, hedeveloped a national reputation as a composer and arranger for the guitar. Holland published 350 works for guitar, of which about a third

216 http://www.musicals101.com/minstrelb.htm 217 http://www.musicals101.com/minstrel.htm Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 228

survive. Holland studied Spanish and other languages and became a leader of the Hall Masons, an alternative to the all-white American Masons. He also worked with the Underground Railroad and with a group which attempted to found a colony in Central America for free people of color.

Charles Lucien Lambert, Sr. (c.1828-1896) Composer of the Creole Romantic school. He left his native New Orleans because of the racial climate, and spent most of his career in France and Brazil. Lambert's Variations et final sur l'air "Au Clair de la Lune", Op. 39 was a famous work.

Louis Moreau Gottschalk (1829-1869) A Creole from New Orleans, and piano prodigy. His virtuosic playing and Creole- inspired compositions gained him immediate fame throughout Europe, with a wide- variety of audiences clamoring to see this handsome, young virtuoso with the splendidly outlandish origins. In 1853, Gottschalk returned to the United States, much to the delight of the young girls who frequented his concerts. He never married, preferring instead to travel the United States and Europe and to trace his Creole history back to the Caribbean region as well as Cuba and South America. Some controversy surrounds the actual cause of his death in 1869, but his extensive touring was certainly a factor.

Louis Moreau Gottschalk218

218 http://de.academic.ru/dic.nsf/dewiki/880258 Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 229

Henry Thacker Burleigh (1866-1949) Composer, arranger and baritone soloist who wrote 265 vocal works and 187 choral arrangements. From 1913-1949 he was music editor at the Ricordi record company. In 1916 Burleigh published Jubilee Songs of the United States of America, arrangements of spirituals for solo vocal performance. The NAACP awarded its Spingarn Medal to him in 1917.

Samuel Coleridge-Taylor (1875-1912) Afro-British composer who wrote a blockbuster musical called Hiawatha's Wedding Feast in 1898. It was performed 200 times in his short lifetime, and made his name a household word on both sides of the Atlantic. Half a century after his death, recordings of his compositions barely existed.

William Grant Still (1895-1978) Oboist and composer whose musical works included African American themes and spanned jazz, popular, opera, and classical genres. In the late 1920’s, he turned to composing classical music, creating over 150 musical works including a series of five symphonies, four ballets, and nine operas. He is deservedly considered one of the greatest American composers of all time.

William Grant Still219

219 http://scriptorium.lib.duke.edu/sgo/exhibit/captions/caption1.html

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William Levi Dawson (1899-1990) Composer, arranger and educator born in Anniston, Alabama. In 1927 he received his master's degree in composition from the American Conservatory of Music in Chicago, and three years later was invited back to teach at the Tuskegee Institute.

Margaret Allison Bonds (1913-1972) Composer, pianist and musical director who first gained national prominence for her song Sea Ghost, which earned her the Wanamaker Prize in 1932, the same year her teacher (Florence Price) earned Wanamaker Prizes of her own. She is best known as a composer of vocal music, including numerous arrangements of spirituals. She also wrote large-scale theater works, notably Shakespeare in Harlem. Her last major work, Credo, was performed by the Los Angeles Philharmonic Orchestra one month after her death.

Margaret Allison Bonds220

Ulysses Simpson Kay (1917-1995) Considered to be a neoclassical composer – producing five operas, a , orchestral, chamber and choral works, and music for film and television. Kay's Overture to Theatre Set was performed by the Chicago Sinfonietta under Conductor Paul Freeman.

George Walker (b. 1922) Composer and pianist who became the first African American to win the Pulitzer Prize in music for Lilacs, a piece for voice and orchestra.

220 chevalierdesaintgeorges.homestead.com/Bonds.html Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 231

Hale Smith (b. 1925) Music editor, jazz arranger and classical composer. His compositions for orchestra and chorus have been influenced by jazz or have used serial techniques.

Coleridge-Taylor Perkinson (1932-2004) Composer and conductor whose style fused classical traditions and black musical styles. Works include ballets To Bird With Love (1984), incidental music, film, and television scores; Lamentations: A Black Folk Song Suite (1973); and The Legacy for narrator, solo voice, chorus, orchestra, (1982).

H. Leslie Adams (b. 1932) Composer, pianist and professor with numerous commissions and awards, and has performed with European and North American orchestras including the Prague Radio Symphony, Symphony Orchestra, Cleveland Orchestra and the Buffalo Philharmonic. The most recent recording of his music is Twelve Etudes, Albany Records Troy 639 (2004), recorded by the Jamaica-born pianist Maria Corley.

Adolphus Cunningham Hailstork (b. 1941) Taught at Youngstown State University (1971-76) and Norfolk State University (from 1976). His works for orchestra include Bellevue, Celebration, Epitaph: For a Man Who Dreamed, and Symphony No. 1. His musical A Race for Space was performed at Howard University, and his other compositions include band music, choral works, chamber music, guitar pieces, sonatas and piano works. Hailstork's Symphony No. 1 (23:10) can be heard on Troy 104 (1993), performed by the Bohuslav Martinu Philharmonic under Julius Williams, Conductor.

Julius Penson Williams (b. 1954) Composer, conductor and professor. In addition to his symphonic compositions, Williams has written in a variety of mediums and genres, including dance, musical theater, opera and movies. His Norman Overture was premiered by the New York Philharmonic under Zubin Mehta. His film scores include What Color Is Love?.

Field Hollers and Work Songs The music created from outdoor work settings and the African American church created the basis for the formation of jazz, blues, and rock n’ roll music. Let’s first look at the pre-20th century vocal aspects of the field hollers and work songs. Mostly unaccompanied, these songs were sung originally by slaves to pass the long, grueling days of field work, and were a natural carryover from African traditions. Common themes were that of hardship, historical events, lost love, and humor.

Field hollers and work songs are closely related in sound. Field hollers tend to be unaccompanied (it’s hard to take instruments out into the field!) and are less rhythmic. Call-response may occur with both types, but happen more frequently in Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 232

work songs, which are not relegated only to the field, but can occur anywhere work is going on. Work songs are more rhythmic, as they accompany a repetitive task of some kind.

The melodies of field hollers, work songs, and religious songs contained tones that did not follow the European system of melody based on the twelve-tone equal- tempered scale of the piano. Notes sung would be closer to the pentatonic scales used in Africa, but some notes would only fit ‘in-between’ the notes on a piano in regard to pitch, thus sounding somewhat "out of tune" to uninitiated ears. These notes were really not out-of-tune at all; they simply did not follow the Western system of tuning. These notes came to be nicknamed ‘blue tones’ (named after the formation of blues) by music historians. Musical theorists came up with what came to be known as the “blues scale”, shown below aside a major scale:

major scale 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 blues scale 1 (b3) 4 (b5) 5 (b7) 8

The blue tones are given in parenthesis, and only approximate what is done through vocal embellishments and flourishes in the African American vocal tradition. Because of the propensity toward the flatted third, many African American songs sound somewhat ‘minor’, which is interpreted by Europeans as being in a sad, wailing, or mournful state. Yet, to African Americans, these scales were merely part of a natural cultural expression. The flatted fifth is really more of a ‘bent’ fifth than a separate note that actually belongs to the scale; and that ‘bent’ fifth, nearly always resolves down to a fourth. The blues scale that appears in so many theory books is really a five-note scale 1-b3-4-5-b7, with the fifth simply being bent a means of expression. In fact, the bending of all 5 notes at different points of many songs was not the least bit unusual; simply a natural form of expression.

Since the piano does not really contain ‘blue tones’, a pianist playing a bluesy style would often ‘crush’ the flatted third into the third and the flatted fifth into the fifth. That means that both notes would be played, with the flatted notes played only briefly to approximate that ‘in-between the notes’ tuning.

Since work hours were long and tedious, it was only natural that work songs and field hollers contain a lot of improvised lyrics. Some field hollers and work songs contained whoops of falsetto from men, and these were a natural form of expression. Some songs were more chanted than sung, or were more conversational in nature, and many would contain call-response. As in all African American music, call and response was an essential element. Often the singer of the song would embellish a melody to the fullest before it was over. Those responding would often repeat the same lyrics. If the leader changed the next line, the responding singers Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 233

would do one of two things: either change with the singer, or keep repeating the same response regardless of whether the singer changed anything or not. Some songs were later recorded in a studio with accompaniment; usually a guitar, but the original versions likely did not have accompaniment.

Given is but one of several examples of the ever-changing lyrics to “Go Down, Old Hannah”, a field holler that sums up the suffering of black laborers in the early 20th century. Doc Reese’s version (lyrics vary) spells out labor camp abuses where many died from overwork in a system that was only a half-step above slavery. ‘Old Hannah’ in this case refers to the sun that never seems to go down in a long, hot work day along the Mississippi River building the levees that enabled the mid and deep south to create a fertile agricultural economy.

Go Down, Old Hannah

Why don't you go down old Hannah, well, well, well, Don't you rise no more, don't you rise no more, Why don't you go down old Hannah, Hannah, Don't you rise no more.

If you rise in the morning, well, well, well, Bring judgement sure, bring judgement sure, If you rise in the morning, morning, Bring judgement sure.

Well, I looked at old Hannah, well, well, well, She was turning red, she was... Then I looked at my partner, partner, He was almost dead.

You should-a been on this old Brazos, Back in nineteen and fo' You could find a dead man, Layin' across your row.

Why don't you wake up old dead man, Help me carry my row,... (repeat)

You should-a been on this old river, Nineteen and ten,... You could find them workin' the women, Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 234

And killin' the men

My mother called me And I answered, Ma'am,... She said ain't you tired of rolling,... Rolling for that old sun-down man?

Then my father he called me And I answered Sir He said if you're tired of rolling,... What do you stay here for.

Then my sister she called me, ... And I answered hey,... She said ain't you tired of rolling,... Why don't you run away.

Then my brother he called me, And I answered huh, He said if you're tired of rolling,... You know you got too long.

I got a letter from the Governor, What do you think he said,... He said he'd give me a pardon,... If I didn't drop dead.221

Spirituals African American music truly solidified in the less hostile environment of the black church. The original African American church in the U.S. was the 1st African Methodist Episcopal Church, formed in 1794. When black workers started to convert to Christianity, hymns metamorphosed to become known as ‘African Spirituals’. A significant body of African American religious songs began to develop, and as one would expect, spirituals showed significant melodic and rhythmic relationships with West African songs. Before the Civil War they were apparently sung without harmony, examples of which are "Deep River" and "Roll Jordan Roll". Despite the overabundance of Biblical words used in the majority of songs called spirituals, their functions were not purely religious:

They were constantly used in the search of freedom, in religious services, to teach, gossip, scold, signal, or to delight in the telling of tales. . . Spirituals were further laden with obsessions about 'freedom land', 'home’, ‘utopias’, 'Jesus’, 'deliverer’, or

221 http://sniff.numachi.com/pages/tiOLDHANN2;ttOLDHANN2.html Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 235

'Savior' as either the God of Christianity, the supernatural spirits of ancestors, or to a Harriet Tubman of the Underground Railroad. Canaan may have depicted a Heaven, a better life to the north, or freedom after Emancipation. ‘Home’ could have meant either Heaven or Africa. In any case, the slaves were eventually forced to resort to the use of words and actions of significance contrary to what could be outwardly spoken or suggested.222

After the Civil War, the American Missionary Association was a key organization that helped fund additional churches and schools. As schooling for blacks became a reality, private universities were funded; the first of which was Fisk University in Nashville, Tennessee, founded in 1866. There were 1,000 students in its first year, with predominately white teachers from the north. It was there that the Fisk Jubilee Singers formed as a college chorus, and in 1871, embarked on the first tour by such a group in the U.S. Consisting of one male quartet and one female quartet plus a pianist, they first encountered hard times. Soon, their popularity outweighed hardships, and they became a major fundraising group for the university, literally saving the university from financial ruin.

The Fisk Jubilee Singers223

222 Hildred Roach, pp. 23-25. 223http://digitalgallery.nypl.org/nypldigital/dgkeysearchresult.cfm?word=Jubilee%20singers&s=3& notword=&f=2 Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 236

Other university groups, (such as the Hampton Institute in Virginia) also performed temperance songs, singing of the evils of alcohol in addition to spirituals. Themes of escape from slavery were well disguised in lyrics, and songs singing of dissatisfaction with present life and hope for the future were abundant in the 19th century spirituals.

Although old spiritual music has been notated into written music, the written music itself does not come close to recreating what actually happened with the music, which was steeped in oral tradition. The lively, hand-clapping, foot-stomping music, laden with African-influenced melodic embellishments and syncopated rhythms simply cannot be captured into written form.

In the African American church, singing became as important as preaching, but unquestionably, the role of the preacher is one of the ‘boss’ or the carrier of the Holy Spirit. Preachers not only spoke the words of a sermon, but sang them as well, usually using numerous embellishments and blue tones. They had similarities to a chant one might hear in a Catholic or Lutheran church; the preachers would literally sing portions of a sermon. The difference was the heavy use of blue tones, usually accompanied by loud, enthusiastic responses (“amen”, “alleluia” “uh-huh”, and others) from the congregation. One of the most famous preachers of this style was the Rev. Clarence L. Franklin, (1915-1984) from Detroit, whose daughter Aretha has made a mark of her own in .

Gospel In the 20th century, the music derived from spirituals has come to be known as gospel music. The term ‘Gospel’ existed before W.W. II, but other terms such as "anthems", "spirituals", and "jubilees" were more common. Dwight Moody and Ira Sankey sold hymn books and popularized gospel in the late 19th century, and the hidden allegories once present in the old spirituals were replaced by songs singing direct praises to the Lord. Black gospel music, which had become distinctive from white gospel music by 1930, was especially associated with Pentecostal churches. It developed out of a combination of earlier hymns, black performance styles, and elements from the spirituals. The singing was often merged into and was usually accompanied by a piano or an organ, handclapping, tambourines, and, as jazz and rock developed in the 20th century, gospel music used all of the instruments of jazz and rock as well (horns, upright bass, electric guitar, and drum set).

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One of the most famous composers and promoters of gospel music was Thomas A. Dorsey (1899-1993) who wrote many songs that included boogie-woogie influenced piano parts, causing consternation amongst older members. He is credited with "virtually creating the modern gospel style, reshaping the older black religious tradition into a 20th century expression."224 After W.W. II the former blues musician and son of a preacher (who used to accompany the widely popular blues singer Bessie Smith), Dorsey converted back to the church and turned his considerable talents to writing religious music. T.A. Dorsey, best known for "Precious Lord, Take My Hand", was the first black man to start a black-owned music publishing company in America, with singer Sallie Martin as a partner. He wrote the songs and secured the rights to other songs, while Sallie Martin became a sales rep, traveling from coast to coast performing and selling music to black churches.

Thomas A. Dorsey in 1929225

The majority of African American church choirs still use Dorsey’s distinctive style today – a combination of the old hymnody in the European tradition, and of the African style of call and response sung in country churches. Dorsey insisted that this music be called “Gospel.” He wanted to disassociate what he felt was a modern style of black religious music from the days of slavery and the distasteful nostalgia of the antebellum South. The gospel term stuck – retiring the words “anthems”,

224 Roach, p. 98. 225 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic-art/169639/10114/Dorsey-1929

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“spirituals”, and “jubilees” as an anachronism of past black religious music. Dorsey was the first to promote the better choirs, quartets, and solo singers in and out of the church on a large scale. With much controversy among the faithful, he advertised the religious concerts, and charged money to see them. (The first on record to do this were the Fisk Jubilee Singers.)

Four Main Branches of Modern Gospel Music Now that gospel music has added the element of entertainment not seen prior to T.A. Dorsey's promotion, religious music stations had already begun to appear nationwide, principally in the South in the 1940’s. By the 1950’s, radio began including gospel music as part of its regular programming along with popular secular music, and so four main styles or ‘branches’ of gospel music emerged:

Choirs Among the four branches this is the most modern form. Choirs today range from "traditional" musical accompaniment, typically piano and or organ, bass, drums (tambourine), and possibly guitar. Bigger studio productions include a horn section and even strings at times. Since the 1980’s synthesizers have been the only noticeable addition. Vocally, choirs have remained stable in approach. A soloist or two is accompanied by the traditional call and response that harkens back to the field hollers and African roots music. Some choirs are crossing over to a black urban pop style, or a more white-oriented Christian Music style, and become less recognizable as true gospel choir music. "Oh, Happy Day" recorded in 1968 by the Edwin Hawkins Singers to this day remains the only million-seller in gospel music history, and has added to the notion by the novice that this is the only extant form of gospel.

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226

A cappella Quartets Prior to W.W. II the a cappella quartets emerged. This style of singing is directly related to white barbershop quartet harmonization. What is known as ‘Southern Gospel’ is really a ‘sanctified’ barbershop quartet style of singing by white singers. Where black quartet singing differs from barbershop and Southern Gospel style singing is the addition of a lead singer with three part harmony. It is common for black ‘quartets’ to have five six or seven members, but since they adhere to the barbershop harmonic template they are still considered and called a quartet group. Black quartet singers are predominantly the purview of male singers. Few female a cappella quartet singers can be found on record because choirs and solo singing are still preferred by women today. The best known of the a cappella quartets were the Golden Gate Jubilee Singers, later known as the Golden Gate Quartet. With the advent of electrical instruments, many of the a cappella quartets jumped on the bandwagon, so to speak.

226 http://www.gospellyfe.com/2009/04/throwback-spotlight-edwin-hawkins.html

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227

Progressive Quartets The electrification of a cappella was eventually called ‘progressive quartets.’ The a cappella quartets turned to electrified instruments after the war in order to be heard by larger audiences. The addition of electric guitar, bass, piano and drums became the standard instrumentation for what was later called ‘progressive gospel.’ Groups like the Five Blind Boys of Alabama, the Dixie Hummingbirds and the Soul Stirrers gained almost instant success once they switched to electrified instrumentation. The late 1950’s and early 1960’s is considered the ‘Golden Era of Gospel’, especially for the progressive quartets. The Soul Stirrers have been inducted into the Rock n' Roll Hall of Fame as being an essential influence in Rock n' Roll. Many of the groups in the ‘50’s and ‘60’s copied the rhythmic intensity, and the harmonic style of the group. Sam Cooke, a later member of the group, eventually became the first black pop star and first black man to own his own recording company.

227 http://www.musicweb-international.com/nostalgia/2004/Jan04/Golden_Gate.htm

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Sam Cooke (lower left) with the Soul Stirrers in the 1950’s228

Solo Singers A good choir may have three or four really good solo singers. These singers eventually gained a following and typically formed a separate career fronting their own band. The majority of the soul music performers of the ‘60’s and ‘70’s were former soloists in choirs – Aretha Franklin, Wilson Pickett, Otis Redding, Al Green, Roberta Flack, Solomon Burke, , and many more. They all stood in front of congregations, dressed in robes, and learned the ropes of one of the most demanding and intense vocal forms of music. Not all of the best talent left these choirs and turned secular. Shirley Caesar and Albertina Walker are two to become highly popular soloists. Some of these soloists employed backup singers, or

228 http://www.concordmusicgroup.com/artists/Sam-Cooke-The-Soul-Stirrers/

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performed as guests with better choirs, but typically the soloist carried the song alone. James Cleveland (1931-1991), was a clergyman and one of the finest male gospel singers ever. There were many great female gospel singers, such as Clara Ward (1924-1973), Mahalia Jackson (1911-1972), Rosetta Tharpe (1921-1973, and Marion Williams (b. 1927).

An Album Cover of Mahalia Jackson229

Today, gospel can be found in churches, but has become entertainment as well, and can be seen in , or in huge concert arenas. One key to success of this genre is that no recording or video can equal the feeling" of the live gospel experience!

Ragtime Minstrel shows, work songs/field hollers, and African American religious music provided the foundation for the ‘new’ genres of the twentieth century - jazz, blues, and rock n' roll. By the 1890's, the demand for minstrel shows or black religious concerts were at a new high. After the Civil War, many African Americans joined the ranks of the U.S. military, and segregated regiments of black musicians were formed. Black regiments would play a different style than the white regiments. Few blacks were allowed the privilege of being trained in reading music, but they

229 http://realblackhistory.org/history/Black%20history%20month/METRCD034.jpg

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played very well by ‘ear’, learning songs through oral tradition. Black military musicians played traditional marches, concert songs, and social songs with lots of melodic syncopation, just as in the minstrel shows and lively spirituals. At times, improvisation would occur by some instruments, especially if a given melody was repeated several times. Often the repeated melody would be played in a different manner in a process called paraphrasing, where a melody is somewhat altered, but still recognizable.

Another time when the lively, syncopated, quasi-improvisational style of music would be found was in the popular dance called the ‘cakewalk’, a dance for couples with high-stepping and strutting antics. The ancestor to the cakewalk was the ‘ring shout’, which was originally done on the plantations. The ring shout was very African in nature, requiring dance moves of great agility.

The Ring Shout

Hunched low to the ground, flat feet pounding the earth with rhythmic intensity as they moved counterclockwise in a circle, a group of men and women wearing the drab, tattered, everyday clothes of southern plantation field hands danced. Their only musical accompaniment was the crisp sound of their hands clapping time and the low, guttural rhythms rumbling in their throats. They had no audience. They danced for themselves and one another. It was the end of a day spent picking somebody else's cotton, cleaning somebody else's house, caring for other folks' children. This was their time to come together and thank God they had survived another day. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 244

Every part of their bodies danced, from their shuffling feet and bent knees to their churning hips and undulating spines, swinging arms, and shimmying shoulders. Even their necks bent like reeds to balance heads rolling from shoulder to shoulder before pulling upright to reveal faces filled with the joy and the ecstasy of dance.230

The minstrel shows used a more ‘watered down’ version of the ring shout, but the music for the cakewalk would reflect the agile motions of the dancers, and would either have a solo pianist or a small combination of instruments such as fiddle, banjo, percussion, harmonica, and possibly woodwinds or brass to back up the dancing. Many minstrel musicians could play multiple instruments. Prizes would go to the winning couples, often in the form of a cake or baked item. This practice continued well into the twentieth century. As a child, I remember ‘’ done at my elementary school in Northern Illinois, where music was played and people walked in a circle on painted numbers. When the music stopped, a winning number was called, and the person standing on that number won a cake, or other prize. These cakewalks were but a feeble remnant of their original version, but existed nonetheless.

Latin American influences also played an important part in the evolution of the syncopated rhythms of the black ensembles in the nineteenth century. The habanera, , and seguidilla rhythms from the Caribbean all surfaced regularly into the melodies of the cakewalk and other dances. More dances were invented to fit to this lively, syncopated music, which would often use a series of moderately syncopated rhythms in the melodic instruments against a steady ‘oom-pah’ polka-like rhythm in the accompanying instrument(s). If no band was available, a solo pianist would play - the left hand would play the ‘oom-pah’ rhythm and the right hand would play the Caribbean-influenced syncopation. Given is an example common to the ragtime style231:

230 http://www.pbs.org/wnet/freetodance/behind/behind_slaveships.html 231 http://0-muco.alexanderstreet.com.libra.naz.edu/view/306288

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The result was a lively, happy, danceable, and ultimately popular music that took the U.S. by storm at the turn of the 20th century. The resulting combination of "oom- pah" against syncopation gradually acquired a nickname; that of ‘ragged time’ or (more commonly today) - ragtime, a name that first appeared to stay in 1897.

Whether emulating form a military band, dance band, or piano - one of the characteristics also inherent in ragtime is the triple vs. duple polymetric superimposition so common in African drumming, where a triple meter in the melody (usually 16th notes) is superimposed over a simpler duple rhythmic pulse (usually in 8th notes). Consider the cross rhythm (the overlaying of one rhythmic pattern over another) in a typical measure of Joplin’s “Maple Leaf Rag”.232

In the right hand, the rhythmic accentuation of the melody is: 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 In the left hand, the basic pulse in each bar is: 1 & 2 &

232 http://www.jazzedmagazine.com/2893/articles/focus-session/the-african-origins-of-jazz/

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Ragtime is merely a name for a music that had been forming in the latter decades of the 19th century, but its national popularity was in the first 20 years of the 20th century. The most famous ragtime composer was Scott Joplin, from Sedalia, Missouri, whose first commercial successes were Maple Leaf Rag, and The Entertainer, composed in 1899 and 1902 respectively. Although the rhythms of ragtime were distinctive and had an improvised "feel" to them, the efforts by Joplin and others were to write this music in a codified, exact, and non-improvised style. The structures of the ragtime compositions were borrowed from marches, and in many cases, ragtime pieces sound like marches that were ‘ragged up.’ Scott Joplin always believed that ragtime should be written out note-for-note, and should never be played ‘fast.’

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Scott Joplin233

Other famous ragtime composers were James Scott, Joseph Lamb, and Ben Harney. Most of them wrote for piano, but piano was by no means the only ragtime music being played, as the minstrel bands became ‘ragtime bands’ and black military bands featured ragtime arrangements that were done by ear, featuring some improvisation and fast tempos (against the wishes of Scott Joplin).

Because the African American-influenced ragtime music and lively dances became so popular with the young people of that day, reactions to ragtime were often quite negative. Social conservatives, religious figures, the press, and concerned parents espoused the new music as evil, music of the devil, and morally decadent. At one time even the musician's union (in 1901) made a recommendation for its members not to play this type of music. However, ragtime’s huge commercial success meant money, so musicians (whether union members or not) were playing this new syncopated, ‘raggy’ music, which was being listened to and danced to by blacks AND whites. The music created significant modifications in dancing styles, and dances such as the "turkey trot", "grizzly bear", "chicken glide", "bunny hug", and "bullfrog hop", were danced in the dance halls, nightclubs, and bordellos.

A famous white dancing couple, Vernon and Irene Castle, brought increased popularity to many social dances, including the African-American derived dances;

233 http://nebomusic.net/MusicWebProjects2008/5thGradeComposers/SwensonTylerCody.html

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thus increasing the popularity of the raggy, syncopated music with white audiences. It was the Castles who changed the world's dancing habits, for prior to the Castles, dances and galas were private and held in upper class homes. Dance Halls were NOT considered proper for polite society. But, by the second decade of the 20th century, dancing habits changed. The Castles began dancing in public venues and audiences became totally enraptured by their performances. Soon, every couple wanted to emulate the Castles, and to dance in public. It would actually become possible for musicians to earn a living soley from music, because the major venues found it necessary to hire orchestras so that their guests could dance.234

The Castle’s musical director was James Reese Europe, who also became a leader of a black military regiment in World War I. When the Castles danced to James Reese Europe's Society Orchestra and recorded under the Victor Label in 1914, this music, and a new dance called the "fox trot" made its way into the dance halls across the U.S. and became popular in the European continent as well.

235 Vernon and Irene Castle

As more ragtime bands became popular, they were often called ‘orchestras’ due to their mixture of stringed, brass, and wind instruments. Noble Sissle and His Sizzling Syncopators and Eubie Blake and His Shuffle Along Orchestra blended

234 http://www.nfo.net/usa/dance.html 235 http://missadajones.theharoldlloydcommunity.yuku.com/

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African and European musical elements in what was truly an interracial music. Jelly Roll Morton (1890-1941), a New Orleans born pianist and bandleader had a successful ragtime band, and was also an accomplished pianist and composer who took the genre to new levels in terms of faster tempos and fluent improvisation.

Jelly Roll Morton in 1929236

Morton would play traditional ragtime songs and put his own personal and unique interpretations to the music. The technique of playing an ‘oom-pah’ left hand against a syncopated, but improvised style was called ‘stride’ piano, which sounds much like ragtime in the early days, yet the amount of improvisation in the music was much more.

Dixieland One of the melting pots for interracial music around the turn of the century was New Orleans, often credited as being the ‘birthplace of jazz.’ While other southern, eastern and midwestern cities experienced similar developments, New Orleans, with its mixture of German, African American, Spanish, French, Creole, and Acadian was a concentrated area of many musical diversity and change. A river port and seaport with close proximity to the Caribbean, the Cresecent City was a natural center for the intermingling of cultures. At a time before movies, television, radio, computers,

236 http://www.dvrbs.com/camden-religion/CamdenNJ-Church-TrinityBaptist.htm Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 250

electric lights, or modern conveniences, live entertainment was in the highest demand, especially for a “party city” like New Orleans.

The increasing popularity of black-influenced music created a need for musical groups to play typical functions such as weddings, parties, and dances. Those able to afford more than a solo pianist would request small group combos, or even a larger “orchestra.” Since a military regiment or town band (concert band) was usually too large or not affordable, a smaller brass band became more feasible. Typically, a brass band would range from 10 to 12 players – two or more trumpets, one or more trombones, one or more baritone horns, one tuba, one or more clarinets and/or saxophones, and two or more percussionists playing whatever combination was available of bass drum, snare drums, cymbals, and tom-tom drums.

Brass bands also performed the traditional New Orleans funerals, which mixed paying respects to the dead with a celebration in honor of the deceased, and of life itself. These funerals would begin with a solemn service in a church, followed by a long funeral dirge out on the streets of the city as the pallbearers carried the casket to one of the nearby cemeteries. As the body is laid to rest and that portion of the service completed, a signal is sounded by the trumpet (or cornet), and a march-type music is played so that all the members of the group can walk more briskly back to the location where the celebration is to begin. The music of the marches often became heavily syncopated and ‘ragged-up’ on the way to the party, and improvisation would naturally occur. Once back at the celebration to honor the dead person, the brass bands would play a combination of waltzes, quadrilles, , , and, music that featured lively syncopated music mixed with elements of improvisation – the most immediate forerunner to the music that would later be called jazz.

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Dejan’s Brass Band at Freddy Smith’s Jazz Funeral237

Most of the brass bands were associated with specific fraternal organizations and social clubs, which was all part of the framework of the segregated society of New Orleans. These societies offered brotherhood, sisterhood, and protection from racial hatred.

237 http://www.flickriver.com/photos/ednewman/popular-interesting/

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Popular Ladies Social Pleasure Club, New Orleans238

Popular brass bands in New Orleans were many - the most notable being the Olympia Brass Band, the Excelsior Brass band, and the Onward Brass Band. Brass band music is still a major force in New Orleans music today, playing contemporary musical styles as well as older, traditional styles.

Buddy Bolden Considered by many to be the first ‘jazz’ musician (before the term was used), trumpeter Buddy Bolden became legendary in New Orleans for his powerful, commanding style and gift of improvisation around 1900. There are many stories of how he could be heard all across the French Quarter when he played, and people would come from all over the country to hear him. Unfortunately, he was never

238 http://www.flickriver.com/photos/ednewman/20603270/

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recorded, as a bout with mental illness caused him to be sentenced to a mental institution for the last 25 years of his life. The sad fact was that health care for mentally ill patients was virtually non-existent back then, particularly for blacks.

The Buddy Bolden Band in 1902239

Migration Although New Orleans was a ‘melting pot’ for jazz, it was by no means the only city where syncopated music was performed. Oddly enough, by the time the term ‘New Orleans Dixieland’ was popularized, the center of jazz music was elsewhere. Surprisingly, the actual ‘heyday’ for New Orleans music was around 1900, far earlier than many would think.

A significant number of blacks began migrating northward. The first ‘great migration’ began in the latter part of the 19th century, and continued through the end of World War I. (A second migration occurred during World War II). In 1917, as the U.S. entered World War I, the port of New Orleans had great significance,

239 http://www.myspace.com/thebuddyboldenlegacyband/photos/873632

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and the mayor of New Orleans believed that it was necessary, given the seriousness of war, to close the red-light district known as Storyville. While the closing of the red light district affected some jobs for musicians, most musicians did not work in the bordellos (except for pianists). It was really the sharecropping and segregated system of the south that drove more and more African American families northward for a hope of a better life, which in some cases became a reality.

The huge surge of entertainers ‘upriver’ to new places such as Memphis, St. Louis, Chicago, New York, and other eastern cities were not really the result of the closing of Storyville. The main centers of the entertainment industry were Chicago and New York, primarily because of recording opportunities. Ironically, the great majority of Dixieland and ‘New Orleans jazz’ recordings were not made in New Orleans, but were done in New York and Chicago.

The center of the musical world for jazz musicians throughout the first half of the twentieth century was New York. It became the city where the most jobs for musicians were in terms of playing engagements, recording engagements, publishing opportunities, and was the center for the most radio networks. The power of the dissemination of music through radio and recordings cannot be underestimated in bringing jazz to the ears of the listening public.

The Dixieland Band The New Orleans Brass Bands were quite popular for parades and special events, but were too large for most social functions, so a smaller combo of musicians became more economically practical. Across the nation, a standard size for the Dixieland bands came to be six or seven musicians, consisting of a ‘front line’ of trumpet, trombone, and clarinet, and a rhythm section of banjo, tuba, and drums. If a seventh player was to be used it would usually be a tenor saxophonist. In addition to being a parade band, they became more and more of an indoor dance band.

Tunes were played like this: the trumpet player would play the melody in a "ragged up" style, while the clarinet would play a more complex, improvised line that would compliment the melody line. The trombonist would play a cross between a bass line and a counter melody, all designed to add to what the trumpet player was doing. The banjo player would supply the chords (the harmony) to the song, while also supplying a steady strumming rhythm. The tuba player would play the bass line, and for indoor gigs, the drummer would play a combination of snare drum, tom-toms, bass drum, hi- hat, and cymbals in whatever fashion was most comfortable. Later, in the late 1930's, the drum setup would be standardized into what is known today as the modern drum set. If there was a saxophonist added to the ensemble, it would play a role similar to the clarinet.

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After the melody of a tune was played once or twice (depending on the length of the song), and all of the instruments had executed the roles just mentioned, it was time for someone else to take the lead. Rather than just play the melody repeatedly, it was expected for the horn players to ‘take a ride’ (improvise), based on the melody and/or the chords. Sometimes a player would paraphrase the melody and stay fairly close to it, while other times the improviser would use the harmony as the basis for improvisation. After improvising one or two times through the song, another player would take a solo. Although not every member of the group would take a solo or a "ride" on all songs, the horn players usually soloed on every song, and the rhythm section players would solo on some songs, particularly if the group had a pianist.

Origin of the term “Jazz” In 1917, the word jazz or ‘jass’ began to be used as a reference for syncopated music. As jazz became the popular music of the 1920's, both terms became a household word. Another nickname for jazz was ‘Dixieland’, in reference to the southern origins of jazz, and this music came to be a stylistic term used today to mean the type of jazz that was played in the 1920's. Jazz historians often use the term "New Orleans Dixieland" to refer to the music that came from New Orleans.

Did the earlier brass bands actually play “jazz?” Most likely! Musicians always created the music first before a word or term was applied to the style. Certainly Dixieland bands played jazz. Exactly when the brass bands began to play ‘jazz’ depends on one’s definition of jazz. It is generally agreed that the smaller ensembles were playing music that resembles jazz by 1917.

There are numerous theories about the origin of the word jazz. One to which several authorities subscribe is that the word is somehow related to an itinerant black musician named Jazbo Brown, who was well known in the Mississippi River Valley country. It was said that when Brown played in the honky-tonk cafes, the patrons would shout, "More, Jazbo! More, Jaz, more!" Another theory is that the word can be traced to a sign painter in Chicago who, in about 1910, produced a sign for the black musician Boisey James stating that "music will be furnished by ‘Jas' Band." James, a purveyor of ‘hot music’ {another nickname for the music of the 1920's} and particularly of the blues, became known as "Old Jas," and the music he played, "Jas's music." Eventually the music was simply called jazz.240

What defines jazz musically?

…an abundance of syncopation (African rhythmic influences) …an emphasis on improvisation …African melodies mixed with the European melodies

240 Eileen Southern, The Music of Black Americans: A History, 2nd edition. New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1983, p. 361. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 256

…European-based formal structures and harmonies

The first band to make what was labeled a ‘jazz record’ was a white group named The Original Dixieland Jazz Band in 1917. The first black band to make a recording was King Oliver in 1923. Although the white band recorded first, it is generally agreed that the white musicians learned this style out of a genuine love for the music the blacks had been playing for a number years already. Back then, it was an imitation of the music, written out and memorized, with considerably less emphasis on the improvised aspects. Although the ODJB and the symphonic-oriented bandleader Paul Whiteman claimed to have ‘invented’ jazz, the lack of emphasis on improvisation and less overall syncopation in those groups made it difficult to substantiate those claims. It was the African American bands of the first two decades of the 20th century that created the style, and many of those creators may never be known.

Black and white musicians did not perform together formally on stage until 1937, but they surely did informally – often with nightly jam sessions that began “after hours” in the nightclubs in the 1920’s and 30’s, promoting a positive and creative exchange of ideas between musicians - black and white. While black bands played frequently for white audiences, white bands did not play for black audiences, mainly due to economic reasons - (the whites were able to pay black bands more than the reverse in those days), and entertainment was not looked upon as a positive career choice for whites back then, while for blacks it represented economic improvement over the poverty that existed in a segregated society.

Louis Armstrong (and Others) Without a doubt, the most famous jazz musician to come out of the 1920's was Louis Armstrong. Born in New Orleans in 1900, Louis came from a difficult childhood and rose to stardom on trumpet in the 1920's due to his fine sound, technical facility, and extraordinary high range. He first recorded with the King Oliver band in 1923, but by 1927, he was becoming famous worldwide with his own groups, known as “The Hot Five” and “The Hot Seven”. He also began to sing in his famous gravelly voice, and made famous the technique of scatting, (to improvise with the voice using spontaneously created syllables). The story goes that Louis ‘forgot’ the words to a song during a recording session and instead of stopping, he began to "scat," and it became a popular technique ever since, and has been used by numerous jazz vocalists. Louis Armstrong enjoyed an illustrious career and was so popular worldwide he was aptly nicknamed the "ambassador to jazz."

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Louis Armstrong241

Some other famous early jazz players were King Oliver on trumpet, Kid Ory on trombone, Johnny Dodds on clarinet, Baby Dodds on drums, and Lil' Hardin (Armstrong) on piano. Another influential musician in the 1920's was clarinetist/saxophonist Sidney Bechet, who was the first to popularize the soprano sax in jazz, and also was known for his style of ‘swinging’ notes, which was copied by everyone who played in jazz and in the big band styles of the 1930's. Bechet would play eighth notes (there are two eighth notes per quarter note beat) in an uneven subdivision, which meant instead of dividing a beat into two equal halves, it was divided roughly into thirds, giving the first eighth note two-thirds of the beat and the second note one-third of the beat. This process became known as playing ‘swing.’ The slower the tempo, the more uneven the beats become. For faster tempos, the “swing” eighth notes are more even. This term “swing” is still used today to define the many songs where the eighth notes are played in this relaxed, lilting style. In the 1920’s and early 1930’s, most jazz musicians played eighth notes straight, while more and more adopted the swing style by the late 1930's, when the swing eighth notes were the rule.

241 http://www.music-atlas.com/artists/louis-armstrong.html

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Sidney Bechet242

Young (or young-thinking) people of the 1920’s loved to dance to this energetic jazz music. Like ragtime twenty years earlier, jazz was criticized by many as ‘music of the devil’, ‘’, and music that would "lead young people down the primrose path to hell." While these types of comments seem to repeat themselves from older generations with each new generation of popular music, jazz garnished a reputation as being unsavory, mainly due to its somewhat errant association with the brothels of New Orleans and other cities. Perhaps more significant was the support that jazz bands were given during the Prohibition Era from the many Mafia-run clubs in the 1920's. It seemed that there was an insatiable thirst for live music to go right along with the alcohol. Despite federal law prohibiting the sale of alcohol, the Mafia took control of liquor sales, and hired the live entertainment. Despite shady dealings and unscrupulous activities, the jazz world owes a significant amount of its prosperity and popularity in the 1920's to the strong support of Mafia-run nightclubs.

The Swing Era With the fickle musical tastes of U.S. audiences, the popularity of any given musical style can change each decade (or sooner!). The mood of the country changed dramatically after the 1929 stock market crash, and the happy, cluttered sound of Dixieland gave way to a more structured sound of larger groups playing written arrangements. It’s difficult to imagine just how hard times were with record-high

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unemployment and bank failures that left many penniless and dependent on day-to- day existence. Surprisingly, demand for entertainment did not decrease during this time of large-scale economic stress. The entertainment industry seemed to offer a respite for our nation's economic woes.

Musically, arrangers first began to write jazz-oriented music for larger ensembles containing sections of instruments in the vaudeville shows of the 1920's, and written arrangements incorporating sections of instruments became the norm by the early 1930's. The clarinet became less popular and the more voluminous saxophone became the woodwind instrument of choice. At first two, then three, four, and ultimately five saxophones were used in a big band. The standard instrumentation became two altos, two tenors, and one baritone saxophone. Brass sections grew at the same time using up to four trumpets and four trombones, with one of the trombones usually being a bass trombone.

In the rhythm section, the banjo fell out of favor, and was replaced by an acoustic guitar and piano. Some rhythm sections contained piano, bass, and drums only, while others added the acoustic guitar. The first electric guitar was a lap-steel guitar with an electromagnetic pickup, created by Adolph Rickenbacker and George Beauchamp, in which a current passed through a coil of wire wrapped around a magnet. This created a field that amplified the strings' vibrations. By the late 1930’s electric (hollow-bodied) guitars began to be used in jazz. The tuba gave way to the string bass which could do a smoother job of walking four notes to the bar as was becoming more fashionable. Drummers continued to piece together snare, toms, bass drum and cymbals into the drum set as we know it today, and by the late 1930's the drum set became standardized.

The time period from the early 1930's to the early 1940’s came to be known as the "swing era." As a matter of convenience, some historians placed 1930 as a starting point for the swing era, but the early 1930’s really sounded more like big band versions of 1920’s music. It wasn’t until 1936 and 1937 where the smoother, more sophisticated style we associate with swing music took hold. The popularity of this music and its impact lasted through World War II before the next major stylistic change came into play, but, the swing era music remains a defining characteristic of American jazz even today.

Two famous band leader/arranger-composers out of New York were Fletcher Henderson and . While Henderson found fame in the late 1920's and early 1930's, Ellington's band remained famous and toured worldwide from the late 1920's until Ellington's death in 1974. One of the reasons for Ellington's phenomenal success was his ability to tailor-make arrangements for outstanding players who could improvise very well. A fine pianist as well, Ellington was most Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 260

famous for his arrangements that created a big band sound that no one could really copy. Besides a number of hit songs such as "Satin Doll," "Perdido," "Mood Indigo," and countless other popular tunes, Ellington wrote numerous jazz classics and sacred compositions. There is no question that Duke Ellington stands out as one the most significant composers of the twentieth century, regardless of musical style.

Duke Ellington and his Band in 1929243

Another famous jazz big band from Kansas City was led by William "Count" Basie, another pianist. Count Basie's band was also known for outstanding improvisers, and although many band members could read music, much of their music upheld the oral tradition of jazz by inventing tunes from short melodies called "riffs." A riff would provide the basis for an entire ‘arrangement’ which would be created by the musicians. A leader of one section (the sax section for instance) would invent a riff that would fit to a pre-arranged chord progression, and the other members of that section would hear that riff, and either play the same riff, or harmonize with it. Then a member of another horn section (ie., the trombones) might respond with a second riff that would fit well with the first, and that section would copy the second riff. A third riff could also compliment the other two short melodies and develop in the third section (ie., the trumpets). Usually the rhythm section is playing throughout. After the riffs are developed and played simultaneously, improvised solos would be taken by several members of the band, and background ideas might be created by ear and played behind the soloists. Eventually the beginning riffs would be repeated again to end the song. Often times the last time through would be the loudest, and was nicknamed the "shout chorus."

243 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic-art/301986/19199/Duke-Ellington-and-his-band- 1929

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Count Basie with his trademark cap244

The Count Basie Band245

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The African American jazz big bands offered the most significant new developments in American big band music, and they achieved some newfound popularity with white audiences as well as black. However, economic discrimination made life very difficult for blacks, and the music industry was no exception. Once jazz was marketed by large record corporations, most black entertainers were given a ‘back seat’ in priorities compared to white entertainers. White society bands or "orchestras" were heavily plugged and marketed as "swing" or jazz, when they really offered orchestrated melodies done to a saccharin-like two-beat rhythm nearly devoid of syncopation and improvisation. In these society orchestras, jazz characteristics were only hinted at, but they replaced the hot jazz of the 1920's, becoming the most popular music of the 1930's, mainly because of successful marketing. These groups were nicknamed the "sweet" bands. Three well-known sweet band leaders were Guy Lombardo, Wayne King, and Ted Weems. While the nearly classical-sounding Paul Whiteman orchestra faded in popularity in the 1930’s, his trademark society orchestra sound lived on through the sweet bands. These bands had some fine musicians, and did very well with the public. They were not really jazz bands, but were often mislabeled or billed as such.

The second most popular music of the swing era was the “swing bands”. These were a hybrid “in-the-middle” sound between the jazz bands and sweet bands. Swing bandleaders who were quite popular were Glenn Miller, Tommy Dorsey, Benny Goodman, and Artie Shaw. Like the jazz bands, swing music was extremely popular with youngsters, and a typical swing arrangement would contain tasty instrumental swing riffs incorporated with sweet band influences, plus some improvised solos. With the exception of the bandleaders, most of the swing band improvisers were not as accomplished as the jazz band improvisers. Sweet band solos rarely had much improvisation, as they stuck very close to the melody.

The major innovations of the swing era occurred with the African American big bands (jazz bands), yet their music, while popular (especially among blacks) was the least marketed and least popular of the three styles. It is not to say that the sweet bands and swing bands did not deserve fame and fortune, for they mostly were sincere imitators and interpreters of the black styles. What must be pointed out is that the African American bands deserved fame and fortune as well, and with very few exceptions, did not receive adequate financial support for their music, receiving considerably less money and advertising support. Ironically in those days of touring (particularly in the south), they would be treated like celebrities at the event where they played, but were refused service in the restaurants and hotels in that same town.

In 1937, the very popular swing band leader and clarinetist Benny Goodman was the first to step forward and insist on using black musicians at a major public venue Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 263

(Carnegie Hall). By hiring pianist Teddy Wilson and vibraphonist Lionel Hampton, Goodman came under intense criticism by some for his actions, but he was also praised by others for taking this important step - that of breaking the color barrier once and for all in a major public concert. Goodman was used to criticism, for his big band was the first to nearly incite a riot as frenzied young people stormed the bandstand for autographs at more than one of his dance/concerts.

Other great swing era musicians were Coleman Hawkins and Lester Young on tenor sax, Roy Eldridge on trumpet, Charlie Christian on (electric) guitar, Art Tatum on piano, and Billie Holiday on vocals. All of these musicians were outstanding improvisers, bringing a new sense of individual style on their instruments. Billie Holiday (like Mahalia Jackson in gospel) proved how important it was to apply the personal touch and jazz styling to her vocals. She set the trend for future jazz singers - singing into a microphone so she could back off on the volume, pouring her soul into a song with an intimate and creative manner.

Billie Holiday246

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Bebop When the U.S. entered World War II, the second great migration of African Americans to northern cities began. In hopes of finding new jobs and a better life, the demographics of northern cities began to change. This also set up developments for a more urban-based black music. During the war, many men (and women) served overseas, and the big bands, although still popular, were greatly reduced in number by necessity. So, the combo became more economically feasible in the 1940's.

In the early 1940’s, particularly in New York combos, experimentation led to longer improvised solos as players explored new ideas about the creative freedom improvising brought them. The music got more complex melodically and harmonically, including the improvising. To increase the syncopated nature of the music, melodic lines with long phrases were interspersed with offbeat accents, giving the music a more unpredictable nature. Tempos of some songs became quite fast, as dancing was no longer the main purpose of the music. (People still danced to bebop, but not quite as much as swing era music). Jazz was becoming more of an art form to be listened to. Nicknamed be-bop (after typical syllables used in scatting), four famous jazz musicians of this era were on alto sax, on trumpet, Thelonious Monk on piano, and Bud Powell on piano. While developing a significant following in New York, the rest of the country was slow to catch on to this new music.

As African Americans returned home from World War II, it was harder to go back to the segregated, unequal society that existed. Having served their country faithfully with many casualties, it was grossly unfair to have to come back to the U.S., ride in the back of a bus, attend sub-par schools, use separate drinking fountains, and only be able to earn wages at poverty level if a job was even available. In the 1940’s, African Americans left the south in droves to go to northern cities with the promise of work, and for many, life did improve.

The urban blacks’ search for identity was reflected in the followers of bebop as well as with the musicians. One result was the development of an urban dialect that included a lot of slang that one would not understand unless they were "in the know", or hung around jazz clubs where blacks performed bebop. Although many jazz musicians like Charlie Parker and Dizzy Gillespie wore conservative dark suits when playing, their followers dressed up with loud clothing, wore "zoot suits" and hats, and men wore goatees. People in this crowd were called "hipsters", or "hippies." Unfortunately, drug and alcohol abuse among beboppers (white and black) rose to an all-time high. One tragic example is how this abuse claimed the life of the improvising genius Charlie Parker in 1955. Parker was only 35 when he died of the effects of drug and alcohol use. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 265

Charlie Parker is quite possibly the most copied jazz improviser in jazz history. His style of playing became the defining trademark of bebop, bringing a new expectation in the virtuosity that an improviser could achieve. His frequent playing partner, trumpeter Dizzy Gillespie, simultaneously achieved new heights of trumpet virtuosity.

Charlie Parker and Dizzy Gillespie in 1950247

The bebop style began to be noticed at the end of World War II, and reached its peak of popularity in the late 1940's and early 1950's, but it did not receive the popularity other jazz styles had enjoyed, primarily because the music was not marketed on a large scale. The listening public had less exposure to bebop due to the war and particularly as a result of a major disagreement between the musicians' union and the recording companies, creating a nearly complete absence of recordings by union musicians during World War II. The impact of this strike was huge in terms of creating a gap with what the public heard between 1941 and 1945. (Imagine not hearing recorded music for four years, then “suddenly” getting a barrage of the “new” music!). Once records came out again, the changes in the music were a lot for the general public to handle, so they tended to cling to the older

247 www.smh.com.au/.../2005/10/20/1129401350225.html

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swing styles mixed with ballads sung by "crooners" singing sweet, recognizable melodies.

In the jazz piano world, Bud Powell and Thelonius Monk had a big impact on the way pianists performed in the jazz combo setting. Instead of performing in a stride piano style, Bud Powell used a method of "comping," a form of complimenting soloists with offbeat rhythms used with both hands, avoiding the "oom-pah" Dixie, stride, and swing band method of playing bass notes on beats one and three with the left hand followed by a chord on beats two and four. Voicings were often thinner and avoided roots and fifths more often, allowing the bass to assume that role. When Powell would improvise, his solos would be much in the same manner as horn players, imitating their longer, more complex lines typical of bebop.

Bud Powell248

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Thelonius Monk played in a style similar to Powell, but increased the use of unusual harmonic explorations, and a somewhat "sparser" style (not as busy as Powell). Monk's numerous compositions help him stand out in history as one of the most respected and innovative composers in jazz. Many of his compositions are considered difficult to perform.

Thelonius Monk249

Although bebop was no longer the most "popular" style in terms of marketing, and public acceptance, the impact of "bop" was quite significant. It increased the expectations of the level of improvisation skills for jazz musicians, and became the most copied style of improvisation for jazz musicians in future decades as well. Big bands in the late 1940's began to use bop influences to a degree, and still do today. In another bop-like development, the Dizzy Gillespie big band began to use Cuban percussionists, and incorporated Latin American rhythms into big band styles, initiating a very significant style that would be called "Latin jazz."

249 http://ccgroovy.blogspot.com/2008/04/april-is-jazz-appreciation-month.html

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Cool Jazz One of the most innovative and influential musicians in the twentieth century was , a trumpet player whose career was launched initially through his playing with Charlie Parker in the late 1940's. Davis's playing style and compositional ideas were not suited to the bop style, for his ideas were quieter and more reserved than those of Parker and Gillespie. In 1949 Miles Davis launched an album called "Birth of the Cool", which featured unusual combinations of instruments, and a more restrained musical style.

Miles Davis in 1949250

The flamboyant, aggressive nature of bop was not present in this new music, later to evolve and develop the nickname "cool jazz." Don’t be fooled into thinking that the music was not difficult or complex; it often was as difficult as bop. It was just played in a more reserved manner. More cool jazz recordings surfaced, featuring instruments previously not considered jazz instruments, such as the flute, French horn, and strings. Although Charlie Parker had recorded with strings in one of his more commercial ventures, these instruments were used in unique combinations in cool jazz. The use of the clarinet in jazz gained some resurgence, and other non- traditional jazz instruments such as oboe and euphonium found their way into jazz

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recordings. The vibraphone even gained more popularity since its use in the swing era by Lionel Hampton.

Except for Miles Davis, many of the famous cool jazz musicians were white, such as Lennie Tristano and Dave Brubeck on piano, Chet Baker on trumpet, on tenor saxophone, Lee Konitz and Paul Desmond on alto saxophone; the latter of whom played with the well-known Dave Brubeck Quartet in the early 1960’s. Many of the members of the white "beatnik" teenager crowds were strong supporters of cool jazz, and the slang used by those teens was, in many cases a direct transference and outgrowth of the black and white bop "hipsters" of the 1940's.

While bebop was associated more with the East Coast, cool jazz was associated more with the West Coast, particularly Southern California. Naturally there were exceptions to this, but the California image of casual, laid-back suburbia was the perfect backdrop and breeding ground for cool jazz. Cool jazz represented the increasing importance of California to American society and culture. After World War II, American attitudes were shifting due to a newfound and more affluent middle class, and to a growing uncertainty of the future of the nuclear age. Cool jazz reflected (and contributed to) a subdued emotion and quiet intellectual control that had become valued in American society. “Keeping cool” was an expression of emotional self-control in times of crisis that was found in American street slang as well as in the language of army test pilots.

Third Stream Other groups experimented with a style labeled "third stream," which combined classical and jazz elements. Third stream often included counterpoint; that is, two or more melodic lines occurring at the same time (e.g., J.S. Bach). Third stream often sounded more like orchestral music or wind ensemble music, and it never achieved the popularity of other jazz styles, mainly because its classification became categorized as orchestra and wind ensemble music with jazz influences. This is one reason why the term “third stream” only applies to the 1950’s and early 1960’s, and has not been used much since.

Hard Bop and Funky Jazz Many musicians continued on in the bop tradition, and when Charlie Parker passed away in 1955, the effect was traumatic to the jazz community - so much so that historians came to give the bebop style of music played after 1955 a slightly different name - "hard bop." Hard bop was also considered to be a reaction to the more reserved, classical feel of “cool.” Hard boppers liked the high energy and more blues-oriented styles. In that way, the term could go back as far as 1951, but refers mostly to the middle and late 1950’s. Hard bop, like all musical styles, evolved and constantly changed with each passing year, (or month for that matter). Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 270

Musicians took the ideas of earlier bop musicians and continued to develop them further, creating new compositions involving complex ideas, new treatments of older tunes, and virtuosic feats of improvisation. As always the music was created first, leaving critics and historians to figure out what to label it!

In part, hard bop was a means of artistic expression by young African American men to demonstrate their dissatisfaction with the social, political, and economic climate of America at that time, contributing to the beginnings of the civil-rights movement. Hard bop was mainly an East Coast, New York phenomenon that reflected the fast- paced, driving, complex New York lifestyle. As in all major northern cities, New York experienced an increasing African American population, making it an ideal backdrop and fertile breeding ground for social and musical change.

In the mid 1950’s the term “funky jazz” referred to relatively simple melodies, chord progressions, and forms. Its essence was one of “groove” and “feeling” and was heavily influenced by blues and gospel music. The earliest form of jazz-rock came out of this movement, where simple, blues-oriented tunes like ’s Watermelon Man and Cantaloupe Island combined simple rock rhythms with the blues and blues-like progressions with a focus on improvisation and the “groovy” feel of the late 1950’s and early 1960’s.

Herbie Hancock in his 1962 Debut Album Takin’ Off (featuring Watermelon Man)251

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Herbie Hancock’s early groups played jazz-rock, and composed and performed some jazz-rock flavored tunes with his combos in this time period. Both artists have produced some very creative music in the jazz tradition. Hard bop musicians would play these “funky” tunes in addition to “mainstream” (more complex) hard bop tunes. Despite the hints of rock, instruments were still acoustic piano and upright bass. Electric solid-body guitar playing was more a feature of early and rock bands, while the organ worked its way into popularity in the early 1960’s.

Horace Silver in 1953252

Several of the most famous hard bop musicians of the late 1950's were Clifford Brown and Lee Morgan on trumpet, J.J. Johnson on trombone, Sonny Rollins and John Coltrane on tenor saxophone, Cannonball Adderley on alto saxophone, Oscar Peterson and Horace Silver on piano, and on bass.

Before describing the later stylistic periods of jazz, remember that all of the periods of jazz discussed still exist, and one style did not suddenly "cease" when a new style took over. Like all popular music, there is always a demand for the older styles as well. Jazz groups often combine elements from any of the stylistic periods of jazz in the course of a night’s work or a jazz recording, and sometimes even change styles during the same tune!

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Modal Jazz In the late 1950's Miles Davis began to experiment with a compositional concept used by classical composers some 75 years earlier – to use modes of a scale as a basis for a composition rather than be concerned about a particular harmony, chords, or the function of those chords according to traditional harmony. A mode is quite simply a scale, but instead of being a traditional major or minor scale, the tonal emphasis, or root shifts from the first note or root of the scale to one of the other notes of that same scale. The listener will usually hear the new note as the tonal center. Think of playing a C major scale on the white notes of the piano, but instead of starting on "C", start on either "D" ,"E", "F", "G", "A", or "B". These scales, when played from the different starting notes, are referred to as modes of the major scale (each given a Greek name). In the key of “C major” the modes stack up like this:

C major scale played from… Mode name

C to C C ionian (the Greek name for major scale) D to D Dorian E to E Phrygian F to F Lydian G to G Mixolydian A to A Aeolian (also known as “natural minor”) B to B Locrian

For each mode, the listener will usually hear the new root in the left column above as the key center. Modes are used in all forms of minor scales as well, but less frequently. The use of modes in jazz came to be known as "modal jazz" and is still used frequently today. A modal composition can be based on only one scale, or more than one scales, depending on the complexity desired.

Traditional, functional harmony does not apply to modal jazz tunes. Rather, the sound of the mode is exploited for the sake of its unique sounds without regard to the chords or scales that came before or after. Other musical functions, such as form, tempo, meter, and rhythm are not affected by the modes or scales of a tune, making it difficult for non-musicians (and even musicians!) to tell when they are hearing modal jazz. Some songs also contain a combination of modal concepts and traditional harmonic concepts.

In his modal jazz experiments, Miles Davis put together what is generally agreed to be one of the finest jazz combos in all of history. On the albums Kind of Blue and Milestones, Davis used Cannonball Adderley on alto sax, John Coltrane on tenor sax, Red Garland, Wynton Kelly, and Bill Evans on piano (on different tracks), Paul Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 273

Chambers on string bass, Philly Joe Jones and James Cobb on drums (on different tracks). The high-level creativity and outstanding improvisational explorations took jazz to new heights. The songs mostly had a "cool" side to them vs. a bop side, yet the improvisations of Adderley and Coltrane had a hard bop flavor. Modal jazz could be bop or cool, depending upon the desired "feel" or energy level.

In 1959, Miles Davis recorded his sixth album for Columbia Records, a small group session that would eventually be titled Kind of Blue. More than forty years after its release, it is still one of the most-sought-after recordings in the country; in fact, as late as 1998 it was the best-selling jazz album of the year. In both and .com end-of-the-century polls, it was voted one of the ten best albums of all time--in any genre--and it is the only jazz album ever to reach double-platinum status. Yet its popularity is not the only extraordinary thing about Kind of Blue. In addition to being an uncontestable masterpiece, it is also a watershed in the history of jazz, a signpost pointing to the tumultuous changes that would dominate this music and society itself in the decade ahead.253

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John Coltrane John Coltrane was one of the greatest musicians and improvisers in the twentieth century. His rise to fame began with the Miles Davis groups in 1957-8, but he was asked to leave due to the vice that afflicted too many jazz musicians in this time period – addiction to alcohol and drugs. A short time later in 1958, Coltrane had a life-altering spiritual awakening. He quit smoking, alcohol, and drugs all at once, vowing to devote the rest of his life to God. For the remaining nine years of his life Coltrane did just that.

John Coltrane is known for three major stylistic periods. He continued to explore hard bop in the late 1950's, often called Coltrane's first period of development by jazz historians. In that period, Coltrane's technical prowess, fueled by an obsessive desire to practice, led to some very complex jazz, with fast tempos and very difficult harmonies. Although difficult to substantiate, John Coltrane may have practiced more hours than any jazz musician of his time, seemingly never stopping from his practice.

As the turn of the new decade came, Coltrane formed his own group - the John Coltrane Quartet, which began to experiment with modal jazz, and music with influences from African and Indian music. 1960-63 is generally labeled as Coltrane's second period. During this time that he began to use the soprano sax on some tunes in addition to tenor sax. The uniqueness of the soprano sax and the exceptional musical communication of the quartet catapulted the group to a popularity not enjoyed by very many jazz groups in the 1960’s. During this time period, Coltrane became known for his lengthy explorations into improvisation. Some solos of his lasted more than two hours for one improvised solo! Although Coltrane's and Davis's groups were popular, jazz was not marketed as much as the new music of the 1950's - rock n' roll.

Free Jazz John Coltrane's third musical period (1964-67) involved experimentation with what would be labeled later as "free jazz". Since 1959, John Coltrane and other musicians began to "free up" one or elements of music during a jazz tune. For example, harmony could be "freed up" or eliminated temporarily by having the pianist "sit out" or "lay out", meaning they would not play for a while during a tune so that the musicians concentrated on rhythmic interplay without worrying about the chord progression of a tune.

Additionally, rhythm could be freed up to the point where tempo would still be steady in the minds of the musicians, but would be implied, less obvious, or interpreted very freely. At some points it would seem chaotic, yet the musicians would know exactly where the beat was. No longer would rhythm section players Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 275

play obvious complimentary rhythms, but would at times superimpose other meters (in a duple vs. triple African rhythmic concept), or would "" freely with indefinite, less obvious, harder-to-follow rhythmic ideas. The longer these periods of freeing up would occur, the more "free" the piece would be. Many of Coltrane’s songs of this time period had religious and spiritual meaning, ie., A Love Supreme, Dear Lord, The Father and the Son and the Holy Ghost, Ascension, and Manifestation.

John Coltrane254

Most notably, alto saxophonist Ornette Coleman is credited with originating this style in jazz, and John Coltrane helped to popularize the style (to an extent, at least) with his experimentations. Coltrane used unique instrumentation in his later works – two bassists, two drummers, and a larger group involving almost a big band instrumentation, but with no preconceived written out charts, or a sketch at best. Here, the two bassists or two drummers would play on the same song, and that certainly created a unique sound. Often songs were composed with only a short riff in mind, and no harmony, rhythm, or form in mind other than a general idea. After the general idea was played, group improvisations would go on for a long time, with all players improvising at once to create a general "feel" for a thematic idea, (which was often religious). Although free jazz was the least popular jazz style, Coltrane had a

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major hit with a quasi-free jazz interpretation of "My Favorite Things" from the movie The Sound of Music.

Ornette Coleman, pictured here at age 82, was still actively playing in 2012

Free jazz went through its most concentrated growth and development from 1959 – 1970. Saxophonist Ornette Coleman, John Coltrane, pianist Cecil Taylor, and trumpeter Don Cherry were just a few of the jazz musicians who delved into free jazz. Although this style of music was not "popular" or “easy” to listen to, it was a fun music to participate in. Classical composers had accomplished the same "freeing up" or elimination of various elements of music, such as tonality (functional harmony) since the end of the 19th century. The lack of specifics for certain elements of music left certain decisions up to the performer, which gave the composer less control of the music, while giving the performer more control. Freeing up musical elements occurs frequently today in film scoring, and in music for some TV programs.

Musicians who played free jazz also experimented with making all kinds of sounds on their instruments, including squeaks and squawks. Without having to worry about what chord they were on and what chord comes next, musicians were free to experiment with sound for its own sake, and to explore raw emotions with their music. The musicians still listened and reacted to each other very much, dependent on collaborating their ideas simultaneously, more than any other style of jazz. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 277

Unlike bebop in which there would be one soloist at a time with chordal accompaniment, free jazz involved more collective improvisation; that is, everyone in the band improvised at the same time, continuously reacting to each other.

Primarily an East Coast phenomenon, free jazz represented the relaxing of standards of behavior in the turbulent 1960’s and was most often played by African American musicians expressing anger and dissatisfaction regarding the lack of civil rights in American society on the one hand, while demonstrating freedom of expression (another 1960’s trait) on the other. Whether used in a classical or jazz style, the freedom of musical elements not only created new music, but questioned the very definition of what music is; for example, when or if a combination of sounds cease to become music.

Fusion and Jazz-Rock Fusion literally means “the process or result of joining two or more things together to form a single entity.” In music, the style called “fusion” refers to the blending (fusing together) of jazz and rock. Fusion, at least in part, came about because jazz musicians wanted to capitalize on the popular appeal of . To a degree, it worked. Many rock music fans that were not into the earlier styles of jazz supported fusion artists through buying records and attending concerts. It was more likely for rock fans to support fusion than jazz fans, as many jazz musicians and fans did not consider fusion to be “real jazz.”

In 1969, Miles Davis (once again!) began experimenting further in developing the concept of combining jazz and rock elements – a process that began in the early 1960’s. In his album Bitches Brew, Davis brought about a highly successful combination of jazz elements, improvisation, and psychedelic/early funk rock elements that proved to be immensely popular and influential.

In the late 1960's, rock bands such as Electric Flag, Tower of Power, Blood Sweat and Tears, and Chicago began to use jazz elements, adding powerful horn sections and improvisation into their music. “Fusion” and “jazz-rock” developed simultaneously: Fusion was originally an instrumentally-based jazz group using rock instruments and rhythms. Jazz-rock was originally a vocally-based rock group using jazz instruments and jazz-influenced improvisations.

Fusion and jazz-rock were paramount in creating a rebirth of popularity to jazz beginning in the late 1960’s. Rock music brought exciting new rhythms and instruments (most notably the electric guitar with a rock sound and synthesizers) to jazz music, and jazz brought a new level of sophistication to rock bands with the addition of horns, complex arrangements, and improvisational virtuosity. Popular musicians/bands who played fusion in the 1970's and 1980's were trumpeter Miles Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 278

Davis, Herbie Hancock on synthesizer, Weather Report, the Yellowjackets, and Chick Corea's (Return to Forever) group. The "marriage" of jazz and rock has immensely benefited both styles, making them more popular and vibrant than ever.

Miles Davis in the 1980’s255

Return to Forever – Lenny White, drums, Chick Corea, keyboards, Al Di Meola, guitar, Stanley Clarke, bass256

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Smooth Jazz “Smooth jazz” (a term created strictly for marketing records) grew in popularity when the major recording companies and music industry focused on mass product distribution, consumerism, and an emphasis on large profit margins. In this way, smooth jazz was able to capitalize on the social and economic trends and, as with the swing era, smooth jazz was able to reach a large segment of the population. With easy-to-follow grooves and simpler melodies, smooth jazz became a commercial form of fusion, remaining popular since the mid 1980’s. In fact, a lot of R&B hits of the 1970’s and 1980’s were simply replayed under the name of “smooth jazz”.

Smooth jazz features some improvisation, and uses rhythmic grooves that incorporate jazz, rock, and Latin elements, often within a restrictive tempo framework, designed to be fairly mellow and “relieve stress”. One successful marketing idea was that the music was perfect for driving the Los Angeles area freeways (or other cites) to and from work. Whether it reduced “road rage” or not, there was no swing music, nothing too energetic, but simply mellow light rock tunes with trace elements of jazz. Popular smooth jazz musicians are represented by David Sanborn (alto sax), Grover Washington Jr. (tenor and soprano sax), Kenny G. (soprano sax), Walter Beasley (saxophones and vocals), and Bob James (keyboards), and the group Spyro Gyra. Smooth jazz is:

A straight 8th note style (Rock or Latin beats, rarely swing) Mostly designated to create a relaxed mood as opposed to creating energy About 60-70% instrumental, and will either be: jazz/rock fusion OR instrumental/vocal R&B hits from the ‘70’s to the present; OR Remakes/new renditions of older pop/R&B hits

Usually, new stylistic trends create a new genre. In the case of smooth jazz, a TERM was created (motivated by economic gain), and then the search was on to make previous genres and some new artists “fit” the TERM for marketing purposes.

Another pheomenom is the blending of hip hop and smooth jazz, which falls under the label of “urban jazz.” Representive artists are Dave Koz, Boney James, and the Urban Jazz Coalition. The combination of and smooth jazz is known as “chill”, featuring such artists as Norman Brown (guitar) and DJ playlists generated by Rafe Gomez. Saxophonist Kim Waters combined reggae with smooth jazz in some of his recordings. Admittedly, because of the similarity of sounds between smooth

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jazz, urban jazz, and chill, it can be difficult to discern the difference between them at this point in our history.

Vocal Jazz Developments Jazz vocalists have always been an important part of jazz's rich history. Developments in vocal jazz have been occurring since Billie Holiday. Sarah Vaughan, Ella Fitzgerald, Carmen McCrae, Joe Williams, Billy Eckstine, and Jon Hendricks are just a few to have a major influence in the 1950's through the 1980's. Since then, jazz vocalists such as Dianne Reeves, Cassandra Wilson, Diana Krall, Al Jarreau, Bobby McFerrin, Karrin Allyson, and Lori Williams continue to impact current directions.

The vocal jazz movement in the universities and public schools has also been significant, leading to numerous vocal groups of varying sizes. Vocal jazz groups vary from a quartet to up to twenty members, and usually have a rhythm section or at least a piano for accompaniment. Two world-renown professional vocal jazz groups are the Manhattan Transfer and the New York Voices. Swing choirs (mostly in school programs) typically run from twelve to twenty singers with a similar accompaniment, but tend to emphasize considerable more choreography with pop or show tunes, and less on improvisation and complex arrangements.

A cappella vocal jazz groups are very popular today - following in the tradition of the popular group Take 6, which mixes a cappella jazz with gospel elements. Today, vocal jazz is not only important, it is credited with introducing jazz to many who might not otherwise have given jazz a chance. This is because many people relate more to lyrics, so they prefer vocal jazz to instrumental jazz.

Jazz Today and Tomorrow Jazz hit a low point in popularity in the mid 1960's in terms of record sales, and then began to increase in popularity. One reason for its resurgence in acceptance has been due to the efforts of educators in the 1960's (and a few in the 1950's) to make jazz band and a few related courses available at the collegiate level, and at the secondary school level. Simultaneously, professional big bands, most notably led by pianist Stan Kenton, clarinetist Woody Herman, drummer Buddy Rich, and trumpeters Don Ellis and Maynard Ferguson performed at secondary schools and universities around the country for decades. These bands became quite popular among young people, creating a demand for jazz bands to be created so that the young students could learn how to perform this music.

Once deemed unsavory and unfit for music education, jazz slowly worked its way into the curriculum to the point where nearly every college, high school, and even middle school and elementary school programs contain some course in jazz, mainly a Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 281

performing big band or combo. In the 1960's a few universities (most notably the University of North Texas in Denton, Berklee School of Music in Boston, Indiana University in Bloomington, the University of Northern Colorado in Greeley, and the University of Miami began to develop full-fledged jazz studies programs, which included courses in jazz band, jazz combo, jazz improvisation, jazz history, jazz arranging, and others. Today, a fair number of colleges and universities offer a degree in jazz studies at the bachelors and masters level, and some offer jazz education in doctoral studies. The implication of continuing with jazz education in the schools is one of major importance. Even so, without marketing and support from the mainstream music industry, even jazz education in the schools cannot make up the difference until “the only music that matters is what makes money” model is abandoned in favor of a balance of musical cultures and styles.

Today’s jazz artists are basically going in one of three directions: traditional, contemporary mainstream, or “anything goes”. Traditionalists are performing jazz mainly patterned after blues, swing, bebop, and hard bop; excluding free jazz and fusion. Traditionalists believe that what they play is “real jazz,” not the various hybrids and “add-ons” (according to them) that occurred in the 1960’s and since. They are also known as "jazz purists". Since the free jazz influx in the 1960's, there has been a tendency for jazz musicians to borrow from and combine older styles of jazz into new music. One of the most popular African American “traditionalists” to do this has been trumpeter Wynton Marsalis.

Contemporary mainstream jazz artists are influenced mostly by hard bop instrumentation and musical forms. However, within the hard bop framework, they continue to push the music forward with increasing technical proficiency, expanding musical harmonies (more difficult and complex chords and chord progressions), and the expression of deeper and varied emotions. Trumpeter Terence Blanchard is an excellent example of a contemporary mainstream jazz artist.

“Anything goes” jazz artists will put all kinds of music into the pot and stir it up. This music includes all styles of jazz, classical music since 1900, world music (particularly Asia and South America), and all styles of blues, rock, rhythm and blues, Latin, funk, hip hop, ska, rap, and popular music. Two important jazz musicians in the “anything goes” camp are saxophonist Dave Liebman and trumpeter Dave Douglas. Musicians such as Roy Hargrove (trumpet), Christian McBride (bass) and Joshua Redmon (saxophone) do well in combining all three modern styles.

Jazz is increasingly being performed on non-traditional jazz instruments as well, especially violin. An exceptional jazz violinist on the scene today is Regina Carter. Jazz can be heard on such "non-jazz" instruments as viola, cello, oboe, bassoon, and French Horn. In the past, instrumental jazz has been primarily a male dominated art Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 282

form; however, today more and more women are studying and performing jazz and becoming an integral part of the jazz scene. One of the top female jazz trumpet players on the scene today is Ingrid Jensen, and one of today's few steadily working professional big bands is an all female group called Diva. Three-time Grammy award- winning bassist Esperanza Spaulding continues to amaze fans with her creativity and virtuosity on bass.

Despite a comparative lack of marketing, the jazz scene remains active in the US, and is constantly changing. Organizations such as JEN (Jazz Educators Network) Jazz at Lincoln Center and the Thelonious Monk Institute of Jazz have offered national outreach programs that bring jazz into schools throughout the country, both live and via the Internet. The past twenty years of jazz has witnessed the growth of the music worldwide and in turn, a number of countries now influence the music with new ideas from different parts of the world.

Jazz today is truly an international music, and, sadly for the U.S. audiences, its popularity in Europe and Japan is actually greater than in the U.S. In addition to a lack of corporate and industry support for jazz, live music in general - particularly in restaurants and clubs, has declined in the last 50 years. Live music itself is fairly abundant but the payment to musicians that club owners are willing to pay has remained alarmingly about the same as it was in the 1970’s! With the world of music at one’s fingertips due to technological advancements, the gift of live music is often taken for granted by the industry and by audiences to some extent, particularly in the U.S. Until the cultural value of live performing musicians supercedes the value of electronically duplicated music, musicians will continue to struggle and compete for venues to play at a decreasing rate of pay. The stigma of the professional performing musician able to make a living solely from performing may revert back to the way circumstances were in the 19th century.

As jazz becomes more eclectic, its very definition becomes increasingly difficult, as it continues to incorporate all of the various styles since its origins. It seems as if the history of jazz parallels that of the history of Western music. The following is an illustration of how this falls together. All dates are indicative of when the style first began, and its peak of popularity:

Classical Dates Equivalent Jazz Dates Medieval period 1000-1400 Early jazz, Dixieland 1890-1932 Renaissance period 1400-1600 Swing 1932-1945 Baroque period 1600-1750 Bebop 1940-1955 Classic period 1750-1825 Cool 1949-1962 Romantic period 1825-1900 Hard bop/modal jazz 1955-1965 Twentieth century (early) 1900-1950 Free jazz 1959-1969 Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 283

Twentieth century (late) 1950-1999 Fusion, mixing past styles 1969-1999 21st century 2000+ Traditional, mainstream, “anything goes”, eclectic, world music 2000+

New styles of jazz will increasingly include more 20th and 21st century classical music and world music. The line between jazz and improvised contemporary classical and world music may blur to the point where there is no longer a noticeable difference between them. Today’s jazz is already difficult to label. For the most part, though, jazz should always maintain its considerable use of improvised music and syncopated rhythms in order to bear its name. Some new styles of jazz will incorporate technology; computers and electronic instruments in ways that we have not yet imagined. Technology will increasingly allow people to create jazz (or at least a jazz-like music) without ever having to learn how to play a musical instrument. Compact discs (CDs) replaced vinyl records, and MP3s are replacing CDs. With ’s popularity, jazz can be observed in that format and in formats not yet invented. If more young people are simply exposed to jazz – its musical elements and rich cultural history will reach an even wider audience.

The Blues of the Mississippi Delta The sounds of the Mississippi Delta blues – often labeled as "folksy", "archaic", or "country", is vitally important to our culture. While blues developed in other regions of the U.S., the blues of the Mississippi Delta had the greatest influence on what was to develop into rhythm and blues, and rock n' roll.

The blues comes from right here in America. That is your American music, and if you don't appreciate it, it's just like a child being born [sic] don't appreciate his mother. -Johnny Shines-257

Like jazz, blues is a distinctly American music that shares the same African American tradition. As New Orleans is credited with a large role in the development of early jazz, the Mississippi Delta region plays a very significant role in the development of early blues. The blues of this region that developed before 1940 is also commonly referred to as country blues, rural blues, or even “down-home” blues.

257 Barry Lee Pearson, Sounds So Good To Me, (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1984) 125. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 284

The Land Where the Blues Began

258

The Delta of the Mississippi River is a flat, fertile plain that stretches alongside the river from Memphis, Tennessee southward about 200 miles to Vicksburg, Mississippi. The delta was an alluvial plain that flooded every spring resulting from rains and snow melt flowing downstream from the north, making it useless for agriculture. Beginning in the 1880’s and increasing into the turn of the century, black labor was used to build levees, and ultimately the rich Delta soil became quite suitable for the growing of cotton and other crops on large farms and plantations. From the Civil War to the 1940's, the economy of the Delta thrived under a ruthless plantation system that was only a small step above slavery.

After emancipation, justice for blacks was either slow in coming or virtually non- existent. As blacks attempted to enter the general workforce, their treatment was often worse than in slavery days. With the abuses of sharecropping, forced labor, jail or prison , the Ku Klux Klan, poverty, , and blatant racial prejudice based on fear and mistrust, life was rife with hardships.

It is said that blues came from the bondage of slavery; however, there is no evidence to support that it existed as such during slavery times. Folk blues singers themselves tended to attribute the origin of blues singing to the field hollers.259 Field hollers and work songs vocally retained their purely African characteristics,

258 http://arapaho.nsuok.edu/~kracht/bluescourse/thedelta.html

259 David Evans, Big Road Blues: Tradition and Creativity in the Folk Blues, (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982) 42. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 285

particularly in the Delta region. Muddy Waters (Mckinley Morganfield), who was from Mississippi, commented on the music of his own rural field work:

You just make things up when you're working out on the plantation. You get lonesome and tired and hot and you start to sing you something. And so all that stuff come to me real good. I can remember that a lot of the records I have made, I first made those songs up during my workdays out on the farm.260

The black songsters of the reconstruction period played mostly country dance tunes or minstrel songs for primarily white audiences, as this was more profitable. Some of the jump up songs (short narrative type songs with unrelated lines), may have had blues-like characteristics. The first reports of these songs possibly being blues occurred in 1892, when W.C. Handy reported "shabby guitarists" in St. Louis playing a song he called "East St. Louis Blues".261 Whether this song was truly a blues is not discernible, but the term "blues" began to be used more consistently in the Delta by 1900. In examining why the blues began in the 1890's, it is important to realize that the 1890's coincided with the coming to maturity of the first generation of blacks born out of slavery.262 That generation was also realizing the taintedness of the "freedom" offered by the plantation economy.

Jazz and blues share African characteristics, and nowhere was the music and dancing more distinctly African than in the early fife and drum groups of the Mississippi Delta. The fife and drum parts tended to have more syncopation than the European military style, and were accompanied with an African style of dancing.

260 William Barlow, "Looking Up at Down" - The Emergence of Blues Culture, (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989) 27. 261 Robert Palmer, Deep Blues, (New York: Penguin Books, 1982) 42. 262 Evans, 40. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 286

Othar Turner and His Mississippi Fife and Drum Ensemble263

Singin’ the Blues While singing was in a manner reminiscent of Africa at times, the topics sung about were African American. The lyrics were in English (Mississippi style) and the subjects concerned life through the eyes of the singer. Lyrical topics suggested the aggressive language and bold eroticism of many African tribes. In Africa and in black Mississippi, sexual practices were not held in as much "taboo" as in the European culture, and it was quite natural for eroticism to be in many blues songs, either in blatant or veiled form. Charley Patton, a very influential Delta blues man, sings in "Pony Blues":

Baby, saddle my pony, saddle up my black mare Baby, saddle my pony, saddle up my black mare I'm gonna find a rider, baby, in the world somewhere "Hello central, the matter with your line?" "Hello central, matter, Lord, with your line?" "Come a storm last night an' tore the wire down"

Got a brand new Shetland, man, already trained Brand new Shetland, baby, already trained Just get in the saddle, tighten up on your reins

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And a brownskin woman like somethin' fit to eat Brownskin woman like somethin' fit to eat But a jet black woman, don't put your hands on me

Took my baby, to meet the mornin' train Took baby, meet that mornin' train An' the blues come down, baby, like showers of rain

I got somethin' to tell you when I gets a chance Somethin' to tell you when I get a chance I don't wanna marry, just wanna be your man.264

265 Charley Patton, a magnificent , guitarist, and singer, exerted an influence that extended from Son House to Howlin’ Wolf, to Robert Johnson

264 Paul Oliver, Blues Fell This Morning: Meaning in the Blues, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990) 107. 265 http://www.charleypatton.4t.com/images/calend2.jpg Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 288

Memphis Minnie (Douglas) sings about her "chauffeur" in "Me and My Chauffeur Blues":

Won't you be my chauffeur Won't you be my chauffeur I wants him to drive me I wants him to drive me downtown Yes he drives so easy I can't turn him down

But I don't want him But I don't want him To be ridin' his girls To be ridin' his girls around So I'm gonna steal me a pistol, shoot my chauffeur down

Well I must buy him Well I must buy him A brand new V8 A brand new V8 Ford Then he won't need no passengers, I will be his load

Yes... take it away...

Wanna let my chauffeur Wanna let my chauffeur Drive me around the Drive me around the world Then he can be my little boy, yes I'll be his girl.266

266 Oliver, 107. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 289

Memphis Minnie

The eroticism of the blues was tinged with a mixture of deprivation, veiled references to an oppressor, failed relationships, historical events, and an irrepressible sense of hope and humor. Many blues songs referred to deplorable working conditions; waiting for "Old Hannah" (the sun) to go down, the backbreaking work on the levees, the railroad, the highway, the fields, or, being put in prison, being forced to travel in order to work, and not getting paid fairly if at all. As far as what was recorded; however, direct protests and highly controversial subject matter simply was not recorded. Nevertheless, the blues "sharpened the contradictions between the black community and the reigning white social order, while reinforcing the black community's self-esteem and solidarity".267

Like most other styles of music, blues has a huge share of songs about failed relationships, of being hurt, cheated on, or "done wrong.” Since most rural blues singers were men, songs about feminine betrayals abound, and, like some rap songs of today, women were treated as sex objects or with hostility. Apparently, this did not damage the popularity of early twentieth century blues men with women, and this often became a “bragging point”.

267 Barlow, 6. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 290

Often, historical legends or factual events would be commented upon, much in the way an African griot would do in the Senegambian tradition of West Africa, yet, while the griots would store massive amounts of information about local events and sing about them in great detail, rural blues singers would supply commentary about an event in a much more concise form. Like the African tradition, however, quickness of wit was admired in rural blues singers, as well as the ability to improvise commentary, and to throw good-natured insults. With lyrical improvisation, it was only natural for some of these lyrics to become new songs or to be permanently changed.

The lyrics of a rural blues singer were often like a jazz improvised solo. The jazz musician reinterprets a given melody differently each time, and improvises a different solo on any given rendition, keeping certain favorite "trademark licks" and inserting those patterns wherever they might work. The rural blues singers would often do the same, keeping certain "pet phrases" and inserting them in the repertoire where they might work. Before the advent of recording, blues lyrics would change like any other folk music, making it difficult for even the blues singers themselves to state for certain if they invented the lyrics to a given song, or if some of the lyrics were actually borrowed material. There can be no final answers to such questions, since all good blues men are constantly revising even their favorite numbers, adding things from the common stock of the blues, so that no two performances by a country blues man are ever exactly the same.268

Certainly, the same can be said about jazz performances. The recording of blues in the 1920's and 1930's forced the use of shorter, more comprehensible, and more consistent lyrics. Moreover, once a singer had made a record, the audience expected to hear that exact song again in a live performance.

One of the early common stereotypes about blues topics is that they are all sad songs. Nick Perls, founder of Yazoo Records' blues series, asserted, "Country blues lyrics are meant to be coy - make people laugh with it or at it. The whole sadness thing about country blues is white publicity bullshit".269 Suffering is not a prerequisite for all rural blues singers, although many did have their share of hard times. Many songs mention related topics such as gambling, (Muddy Waters getting a mojo hand) superstition, (Robert Johnson at the crossroads), and the ruins of canned heat or white lightning (alcohol) as presented in Tommy Johnson's self- fulfilling rendition of "Canned Heat Blues" (he was later to die from its effects.) Nevertheless, there is always a sense of humor and hope in the blues that made listeners believe that there was hope for better times in the future.

268 Alan Lomax, The Land Where the Blues Began, (New York: Pantheon Books, 1993) 410. 269 Ibid, 59. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 291

The lyrical structure of the blues has gradually evolved to a twelve bar form, with three vocal lines repeated in AAB fashion. Many variants of this structure exist, but the most common ones are AAA, ABAB, or AAAB. Bear in mind that the length of the accompanying response would often vary according to what the performer felt like doing. In many cases, the lines would rhyme, but how many lines should rhyme was a matter of personal taste among the musicians. W.C. Handy reported hearing a three line AAB blues stanza form in the Mississippi Delta in 1903.270 A former prisoner sings this typical AAB example:

I'm going to Memphis when I get parole, (twice) Stand on the levee, hear the big boats blow.271

Interaction between Voice and Instruments In the rural blues of the Delta, a relationship of equal importance existed between voice and instrument, which was usually the guitar, harmonica, occasionally a piano, or even a one-string diddley bow. (The banjo, a descendant of the 5 stringed halam of the Wolof of Senegambia was played much more in the white folk tradition than the black folk tradition, and was used very little in early blues music.) This equality contrasts with the West African griots in the sense that in their songs, instruments take a more subsidiary and non-harmonic role.

Another important Africanism that was usually ignored in recording early Delta blues was the interaction between the performer and the audience. Performers Charlie Patton, Son House, and many others would clown around, play the guitar in humorous positions, tell jokes, and use the guitar like a drum in addition to merely sitting and singing songs. The audience would be quite participatory in nature, clapping hands, shouting, singing, and dancing, which included traditional African movements such as rocking, the avoidance of crossing the feet, erotic dancing, and dancing with eye contact from eye to torso, and not eye to eye. This "wild" dancing to the blues was nothing new, but a continuance of a tradition brought over from Africa; the very same tradition that invokes the dancing styles seen in parades in Brazil, Trinidad, Haiti, and New Orleans.

Altering Sounds As the 20th century grew near, the attempts to suppress African drumming and singing in the U.S. led not to the elimination of African elements in black music, but to the transformation of the European musical tradition through the African heritage. African drumming and rhythmic concepts survived through secret ceremonies, “pattin' juba” (using the body as a percussion instrument), ring shouts, and of course, in vocal and instrumental melodies. With this came the concept of

270 Titon, 26. 271 Lomax, 266. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 292

altering or "muddying" instrumental and vocal sounds away from the European concept of a more or less unaltered tone quality. Falsetto, whoops, growls, melismas, the use of newspaper between wires of the piano, harmonicas cupping their hands, unorthodox or open guitar tunings, and sliding a knife, metal tubing or bottleneck over the guitar strings were common in the early blues.

The evolution of African American vocal styles in the blues (as well as in jazz) comes from the arhoolies (whoops) from Angola to the field hollers and work songs of the plantations. Listening to Blind Sonny Terry on many of his recordings will give good examples of a call/response dialogue between the harmonica and the whooping. From North Carolina, Terry was hugely influential upon such Delta harmonica players as Napolean Strickland (who also played fife), “John Lee” Sonny Boy Williamson, Willie Foster (not to be confused with Chicago's Little Willie Foster), and Little Walter Jacobs (who played with Muddy Waters), all carrying the Delta blues tradition into the 1940's. The field hollers contributed to the vocal technique and the tonal vocabulary of the Delta blues so much, that some of the early songs of the Delta actually sound like a field holler with a guitar accompaniment.

272 Blind Sonny Terry (1911-1986), a blues harmonica legend

The Delta blues vocal style reflected a heightened speech with numerous personal and subtle inflections, bringing to listeners a powerful, emotional feeling that defied its deceiving simplicity. Samuel Charters, as he listened to a Senegambian griot, noted that the melodic figures, harmony, and accompaniment sounded little like the blues, yet…

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. . . at the same time so much of the mood and style had overtones of something I had heard before. I had the uncanny feeling that I was hearing one of the early blues men, only now he was singing a different style of song. The vocal timbres, the shaping of the melody, the rhythmic openness of the singing all seemed to be directly related to the blues.273

One need only compare Henry Ratcliff's "Louisiana" with the "Field Song from Senegal" sung by Bakari'BaDJi on Alan Lomax's "Roots of the Blues" recording to see how similar the concept of the Mississippi version is to the African. The African American blues styles that developed in the south out of work songs even varied between different state penitentiaries. The communal style of singing common in Africa retained its last vestiges in prisons in the early twentieth century south. The subtleties and nuances of the Delta blues vocal style is not as "simple" as it sounds, nor is it easy to imitate without a sensitivity to African language and culture, an awareness that did not occur in the sincere, yet somewhat artificial blues revivals of the post 1960's by whites.

The Church and the Blues Black music truly evolved into a cross between African and American musical culture in the church, the main institution of black Delta life. The very staple of the blues and jazz musical language developed through spirituals, musical sermons, and the heterophony of the lining hymns mixed with the shouting and sounds of jubilation based on African scales, either sung or played upon European instruments. The idea that blues arose from the church was rejected by most black churchgoers, particularly women, who likened the blues to the "devil's music". The well known legend of Tommy Johnson and Robert Johnson making a deal with the devil at the "crossroads" certainly enhanced the dark reputation of the blues. Yet, many rural blues singers such as Son House and Big Bill Broonzy were preachers at one time.

Women tended to sing in church, and literally ruled the vocal sounds there, while men tended to be more apt to skip church and "sing the blues". Another reason why more women did not sing the blues is the fact that the roles of women were more closely associated with the family unit and staying home, and although times were difficult for both sexes, women were spared some of the worst atrocities of the Jim Crow south, giving the men more "events" to sing about. Most women who ventured out to sing the blues tended to play piano, or were accompanied by a piano or small jazz combo. This “classic blues” tended to be more structured, formalized, and “Europeanized”, and in the 1920's, it was the first type of blues to get attention from the recording industry.

273 Samuel Charters, The Roots of the Blues: An African Search, (New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1981), 16. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 294

Blues Melodies In the field hollers, work songs, and prison songs, the blue tones were numerous, being used nearly exclusively. The attempts to recreate these vocal concepts on instruments is well documented in jazz history sources; the "crushed" notes on the keyboards, the bending of strings, and the horn smears and glissandi. As jazz evolved through Dixieland and the swing era, the use of blue tones became much less, while rural blues maintained a high usage of blue tones, making this a signature trait of the blues that still holds true today. Alan Lomax points out the interconnectedness of music in culture by stating that societies where strict rules of caste and class apply tend to use intervals (distances between notes) narrower than a second, and that as the rules of social order relax throughout the world, so do the openness of intervals increase.274 This can be applied to the use of blue tones as well, as Lomax further expounds:

Flatted - that is, narrowed - intervals sometimes occurred in black African as well as African-American music, but at nowhere near the frequency that they came to have in the blues of the Delta. Here, as all agree, they signal a melancholy, a depressed mood, one which blacks say and know is the product of the caste system that hems them in. Therefore, I attribute this shift to blue (or narrowed) intervals in the music of the Delta after 1900 to the painful encounter of the black community with the caste-and-class system of the post-Reconstruction period.275

This may explain why the early rural blues maintained more blue tones than in any other period, given the slowly improving social status of blacks in the U.S. since 1940.

Instrumental Characteristics The acoustic (and later electric) guitar and the harmonica were innovative in their imitations of African instruments and American sounds such as trains and whistles. The harmonica supplanted the fife in popularity, and the guitar was certainly more economical and transportable than the piano in the typical rural setting. The piano does appear on Delta blues recordings, but was associated more often with the city or classic blues, and less often with rural blues.

When listening to rural blues, the apparent simplicity of both the vocal and instrumental parts is often overestimated, especially when one observes the parts separately. Jeff Titon's detailed analysis of Willie Brown's "M. and O. Blues" reveals a significant amount of vocal/accompaniment polyrhythm. . .

274 Lomax, 354. 275 Lomax, 354. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 295

Within the vocal itself, Brown uses syncopated devices: he begins phrases on unstressed notes, anticipating the beat both in duple and triple rhythms across bar lines and within measures. Polyrhythm is found most frequently in recorded early down-home blues from the Mississippi Delta area and the Memphis area.276

In contrast to the unobtrusive accompaniments of the African griots, the guitar playing of the Delta blues took on all of the same characteristics of the vocals, with the amount of syncopation varying according to the individual, even so much as to create accents on words not normally accented in vocal lines. The syncopation of pattin' juba transferred easily to the one string diddley bow, and to the guitar. Alan Lomax, commenting on the multi-talented Napolean Strickland, who also plays diddley bow and guitar (the latter in the Fred McDowell tradition) states:

He has transferred the diddley-bow style to the guitar and has enriched it by adding chords and the wide tonal possibilities of a six-stringed instrument to the slide style. Most important, however, the guitar is now singing the blues, moaning the blues, crying the blues, with a nearly human voice.277

In the blues style of Charley Patton, the Yazoo consortium of blues scholars noted…

His rhythms assume such importance in each work that they ultimately become the work itself. This rhythmic emphasis was clearly a matter of choice, not of limitation.278

Often, the harmonies of the early rural blues would seem vague or non-existent. This is not surprising when one recalls that harmony is typically not a traditional feature of African music. The transition to the twelve bar form using tonic, sub- dominant, and dominant harmonies (in other words, harmonies revolving around three basic chords) took nearly fifty years to solidify.

The bottleneck, slide, or knife being played across the strings is a trademark Delta guitar technique. Whether single line or chordal, this technique well represents a typical alteration of sound, African American style. W.C. Handy's retrospective observation that the Delta slide practice was related to the Hawaiian slide guitar is a superficial assertion, one that was really only similar in concept, but not in development. The blues slide guitar owes much of its technical transference to the ". . . glissed zithers created by African children in the Kongo/Angolan area of central Africa, with a second small distribution area along the Gold Coast."279 Unique tuning systems, like the Spanish tuning (D-G-D-G-B-D) and the "cross

276 Titon, 152. 277 Lomax, 351. 278 Palmer, 65. 279 Richard Graham, "The Roots of Slide", Living Blues, 23:6 (1992), 5. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 296

natural" or "Vastopol" tuning facilitated playing with a slide device, because major triads could be sounded by laying it straight across the strings.280

The slide guitar, also known as bottleneck guitar, can be played on either an acoustic, electric, or Dobro guitar. Whereas guitar playing usually involves pushing down on the frets to create the chords, the player takes the slide and simply touches the strings over the fret, hardly pressing down. The slide can be moved up or down without leaving the strings, which means that a continuous change of pitch can occur. Originally, slides were medicine bottles or the neck of a beer bottle (hence the term “bottleneck”). Today's slides are usually made out of steel, brass, glass, or ceramic. There is no set finger on which the slide should be placed on; it depends on the artist’s preference. Typically the slide is played in open tunings because it is easier to make full sounding chords using an open tuning (such as open G); however, the slide can still be played using standard tuning.281

Robert Johnson The most well known of the early Delta blues singers/slide guitarists was Robert Johnson, who in many ways represents the culmination of the development of rural blues singing in the late 1930's. He made the instrument sound uncannily like a full band, furnishing a heavy beat with his feet, chording innovative shuffle rhythms, and picking out a high, treble-string lead with his slider, all at the same time.282 Without a doubt, Johnson had a "modern" sound, with a good amount of sophisticated interplay between voice and instrument. His haunting voice reflected the tension of his short life and the times, while the impact of his personal style

280 Titon, 46-47. 281 http://hubpages.com/hub/Slide-Guitar 282 Palmer, 117. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 297

still influences guitarists today. What Johnson might have done had he lived beyond 1937, unfortunately, can only be speculation.

283 284

Robert Johnson – gifted beyond his years, guitarist, singer and songwriter - has a life story that is riddled with myth and mystery. The young Robert Johnson, often called “RJ”, was truly a “ramblin’ man” that lived the blues long before he ever began to play and sing it. Born May 8, 1911 in the then racist and segregated Southern town of Hazlehurst, MS, Robert did not have a very stable childhood, because his mother moved a lot to find work in various places. Even after marrying at a very young age and trying to form his own sense of stability and family, “RJ” lost his young wife and child during childbirth. A few years later at 19 or 20 years of age he met Vergie Mae Smith and had a son with her, Claud L. Johnson. Just 7 short years after Claud was born, Robert died at the tender age of 27. Despite his very brief life, and that there are only two known photographs of Robert Johnson, he did leave a collection of 29 recorded songs that (even 70 years after his death) have sealed him a place in American History as one of the greatest “Delta Blues” musicians of all times.285

Urbanizing the Blues In the 1930's and 1940's, the continued oppression in the south, coupled with a promise of a better life in the urban sprawl of Chicago, prompted most Delta blues musicians to move to the windy city. There, an urban brand of blues developed, yet

283 http://img.timeinc.net/time/2007/blackhistmth/images/robert_johnson.jpg 284 http://www.aaa-copywriter.it/Deposito/07-09-10/johnson.jpg 285 http://www.robertjohnsonbluesfoundation.org/ Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 298

some musicians maintained a distinctly Delta trademark sound. During the late 1930's and early 1940's, differences between country and urban blues musicians became solidified.

The blues of the Mississippi Delta is also studied in jazz history because of the shared African characteristics between the two idioms, and the fact that both forms contain musical characteristics of the other. The migration of jazz musicians to urban recording centers occurred earlier than the Delta migration, and there was a general disdain by the urban dwellers of the old time "countrified" versions of the blues.

Giving up "old-fogeyism" meant singing and playing in tune with the piano; that is, shifting over from the traditional scales of the Delta, which fitted black communication style into the neutral and unfamiliar diatonic scale developed over the centuries in European fine-art music. The Delta scale and its intervals, which were at times flatter or sharper than those of the piano, underlay the accustomed Delta modes of expressing anguish, desire, bitterness, amusement, and a host of other emotions, habitually employed by African American folk singers.286

The gradual evolution to conventional harmony and the twelve bar blues form occurred earlier in jazz than in blues, and this has seemingly locked the blues into a predictable form.

To ask a Delta blues musician to record an original blues and record it the same way on each "take" is like asking the jazz musician to record the same improvised solo on each tune, thus removing the very essence of the improvised character of the music. Rural blues musicians had difficulty adjusting to the pre-planned demands of structure that recording with other musicians entailed. Furthermore, amplification created a depersonalization that tended to dilute regional styles. Then, there is this prevailing myth that blues musicians only played the blues, perhaps begun by the recording industry's motivation for profit, in that there was little interest in any of the hymns, country songs, or other forms common in the repertoire of the musicians who played the blues, which often could be a fairly small percentage of the overall body of songs performed. The myth of the "blues man" as playing only all blues songs was one that became reality by the 1940's, created by the very influence of the recordings sold to the masses. David Evans comments:

. . . only certain items of popular music gain access to the mass media, not necessarily the items that would normally be most appreciated by the audience if given a choice between all those available. There is often competition for access to the media, and an ideology of survival of the fittest may set in among performers, composers, and

286 Lomax, p. 454. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 299

those who control popular taste through the media. The spirit that lies behind popular music, then, is part of a larger democratic and competitive spirit prevalent in mass society, whereas the spirit that underlies folk music is of a more plebeian sort characteristic of smaller communities.287

While the continued existence of the pure, folk blues of the Mississippi Delta has been threatened by the commercial exploitation of the mass media in more recent times, the impermanence of this music belies its very nature, making evolution and change the expectation. Although over 2,000 rural blues songs were recorded in the U.S. between 1926 and 1930, the Delta blues never really enjoyed a "golden age" in the sense that the style was regionally based, was not recorded until the end of its developmental period (roughly 1926-1937), and was deeply cut into by mass migration to urban areas in the north.

Past beliefs of some self-righteous city dwellers toward the "country bumpkins" of the rural blues need to be supplanted by a new appreciation of the origins of the blues, its inherited Africanisms, and its multitude of subtle variations. "The rural blues were not the result of a few isolated incidents of individual genius. Instead, they were a broadly based cultural movement occupying the time and energy of large numbers of black farm workers in the South's cotton belt."288

The blues of the Mississippi Delta paralleled jazz in its origins, maintained more purely African elements, and provided an enduring musical form that can be presented in countless ways. Blues also provided the very foundations for the rhythm and blues and rock n' roll that forever changed the direction of . In most record stores today, under the category of blues, one can find examples of the earliest blues to the most recent blues artists, proving that blues today enjoys a solid, yet ever changing tradition built from the tense roots of the Mississippi Delta.

One blues man who took the bottleneck style of Robert Johnson and the musical characteristics of the Delta a step further into the urban-based electric rhythm and blues of Chicago in the 1940's and 1950's was Mckinley Morganfield (1915- 1983), better known as Muddy Waters. Like many blacks, Muddy Waters migrated from Mississippi to Chicago, where his electric guitar style became known as urban blues, or rhythm and blues. The electric guitar sound, with an added rhythm section of piano, upright bass, drums, and usually another guitar became the typical basis for the blues bands to this day.

287 Evans, 6. 288 Barlow, 6. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 300

Muddy Waters in 1950289

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The following list names of musicians of the Mississippi Delta Blues origins and/or styles. Names listed indicate a person that the musician performed with. This chart assumes that everyone is a vocalist to at least a degree. Instrument key: g- guitar, p-piano, bjo-banjo, v-violin, m-mandolin, h-harmonica, f-fife

Name Instrument/Data

Bobby "Blue" Bland vocal, modern Big Bill Broonzy v,g Arthur Crudup g Bo Diddley g, R&B star Willie Dixon bass, M. Waters George "Buddy" Guy g, modern W.C. Handy bandleader, comp. John Lee Hooker v,g Son House g, taught R. Johnson Little Walter Jacobs h, Muddy Waters Elmore James g Blind Lemon Jefferson g, Texas, influential Blind Willie Johnson g, Texas religious Robert Johnson g, major influence Tommy Johnson g, Albert King g, modern B.B. King g, modern style Leadbelly (Huddie Ledbetter) g, Texas Fred McDowell g, taught N. Strickland Memphis Minnie g Charley Patton g, major figure Sonny Terry h, N. Carolina, influential Junior Wells h

Boogie Woogie, Crooners, Rhythm and Blues, Early Rock and Roll The rhythmic piano style of boogie woogie was a very important development in early blues. The first known use of the term was in 1928, with the recording of Pinetop’s Boogie Woogie by Clarence “Pinetop” Smith. The “rumbling” boogie style spread in the early 1930's, being played at the “honky tonks” that featured this music- sometimes labeled “honky tonk” music. Boogie woogie was originally an imitation of the sound of the trains that would roll through many times across the U.S.; a time when the railroad was a very popular way of traveling in addition to moving commerce.

Not only would pianists imitate this sound, but combos and big bands would also play boogie woogie arrangements, and many of these songs were blues or blues-oriented. In the 1940's a number of African American combos and big bands played a lot of Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 302

lively blues and boogie woogie tunes to a shuffle beat, with a strong, hard back beat on the drums emphasizing the beats two and four. By the middle and late 1940's bands that specialized in this style came to be known as “jump blues” bands, and later, “rhythm and blues” bands.

Jump blues “jumped” in popularity too, as alto saxophonist Louis Jordan & His Tympany Five became the first rhythm and blues band to sell a million records. Jordan’s appeal stemmed from his songs’ lively evocation of good times, performed in a swinging style that ranged from hot jazz to bluesy boogie. Jordan supplied a good deal of the slang of early rock and roll and directly influenced the freewheeling spirit of the music. In retrospect, Jordan’s use of syncopated shuffle rhythms in a small-combo context can be viewed as the bridge between big-band swing and rhythm & blues. His incorporation of electric guitar and organ proved a major stepping-stone from jazz to R&B, as well.

Louis Jordan and His Tympany Five launched 54 singles into the R&B charts in the Forties, including eighteen songs that went to #1. Their most popular numbers included “Choo Choo Ch’Boogie” (#1, 18 weeks), “Ain’t Nobody Here But Us Chickens” (#1, 17 weeks), “Boogie Woogie Blue Plate” (#1, 14 weeks), “Saturday Night Fish Fry” (#1, 12 weeks), “Buzz Me” (#1, 9 weeks), “Caldonia” (#1, 7 weeks), “Jack, You’re Dead” (#1, 7 weeks), “Blue Light Boogie” (#1, 7 weeks) and “G.I. Jive” (#1, 6 weeks). From 1943 to 1950, Jordan occupied the top position for a total of 113 weeks - more than one-fourth of the time! For good reason he was dubbed “King of the Juke Boxes.” His peak year was 1946, when seventeen of his songs made the upper reaches of the R&B charts. His popularity led to starring roles in a series of musical film shorts from the late Forties, including Caledonia, Look Out Sister, and Reet, Petite and Gone.290

290 http://www.rockhall.com/inductee/louis-jordan Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 303

Louis Jordan & His Tympany Five291

The most popular music of the 1940's and early 1950's was neither blues nor bebop jazz. Music by vocal crooners Bing Crosby, , Nat King Cole, Perry Como, , Dean Martin, Doris Day, Dinah Shore, Peggy Lee, Rosemary Clooney, and Kay Starr dominated sales. Vocal groups such as the Mills Brothers, Ink Spots, and the Andrews Sisters were also very popular. New songs written in the swing style (big band or combo) typically did well with record sales.

In the mid and late 1940’s, the black-oriented rhythm and blues began to grow in popularity among young people, black and white. Back in those days, if one wished to purchase a record by a black artist, a trip to the "race record" store was necessary. In 1948, the term "rhythm & blues" was coined by young Billboard reporter and future Atlantic Records producer Jerry Wexler, which gradually began to replace the "Race Records" listings.

By 1952, 40% of rhythm and blues records were brought by whites, mostly teenagers. It was a lively, wild music for the day, featuring shouting lyrics, showy dancing, instrumental solos on guitar and a raucous sounding saxophone, which became the centerpiece sound of R&B solos. The saxophone was used for its suggestiveness and its ability to incite a crowd into a frenzy as evidenced by Big Jay McNeely's smash "The Deacon's Hop" and the slowed down sultriness of Paul

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Williams "Hucklebuck" (1949). Meanwhile, T Bone Walker was making the electric guitar popular in blues along with Muddy Waters.

Beginning in 1951, Alan Freed had a radio show in Cleveland called the "Moondog Show" that played rhythm and blues records late at night for teens. A number of black artists got airplay, including singer Joe Turner.

292 Joe Turner sang "Shake, Rattle and Roll" long before Elvis Presley was known.

To make the music more accessible, Alan Freed began to apply the term "rock n' roll" to the rhythm and blues songs. Wynonie Harris's version of "Good Rockin' Tonight" topped the R&B Charts in 1948, and gave rise to the popularization of that word in connotation with the music. Freed moved his show to New York, and soon, rhythm and blues bands were given a chance at success by being labeled as rock and roll bands. A huge boost in record sales began in 1949, when RCA Victor introduced the 45 RPM record, which was easier to produce, smaller, and cheaper than the delicate 78's. This appeal to younger audiences made the 45 RPM record music's leading seller. That same year, the first jukebox to play 45 RPM records was introduced.

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Alan Freed293

In 1950, Arkie Shibley & His Mountain Dew Boys recorded "Hot Rod Race", which would set the stage for white to meet rhythm & blues, creating a style of music that came to be known as “rockabilly”. White rhythm and blues bands began to form, and were marketed as rock and roll bands. The first successful rock and roll band labeled as such was Bill Haley and the Comets, a white country-influenced group who used to be called The Saddlemen.

Between the years of 1952 and 1954, rock and roll grew to be a household name. At one rock n’ roll show hosted by Alan Freed, the overflow crowds broke down the doors, storming the arena where a full scale riot ensued, bringing the newly coined "rock 'n' roll" music its first widespread headlines and scrutiny. As Freed’s show moved to New York, the new music of teens was once again feared and condemned by the older generation. Later in 1957, his own TV show would be canceled because of complaints from those who protested seeing black teenage singer Frankie Lymon dancing on screen with a white girl.

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By 1953, the first integrated rock n’ roll show occurred, and some black rock and roll artists achieved fame. However, the majority of the marketing emphasis, fame, and money went to white artists who imitated the rhythm and blues artists. Pictured are a few of the many black artists of early rock and roll:

294 No one, but NO ONE would want to follow Little Richard in the 1950’s. He was nearly always billed as a “closer” due to his high-energy, show-stopping antics.

294 www.petersando.com/mem3.html Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 307

295 New Orleans pianist Fats Domino was known for “Ain’t That a Shame” and “Blueberry Hill.”

296 Bo Diddley was known for his “clave-like” rhythmic strumming on guitar. Diddley is the author of a body of songs - including “Who Do You Love?,” “Road Runner,” “Mona,” “Before You Accuse Me” and “I’m a Man” - that are among the earliest examples of rock and roll rising out of its source material in rhythm and blues. Diddley married two worlds he knew well - the Deep South and the streets of Chicago - in his music.297

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Beginning a tradition to be followed by James Dean, Buddy Holly, Ritchie Valens, and others, Johnny Ace was the first teen entertainer to gain skyrocketing record sales shortly after his tragic death

Tragedy Strikes R&B Field; Johnny Ace Dies in Russian Roulette Game HOUSTON, Jan. 1, 1955 –

Rhythm and blues recording star Johnny Ace accidentally killed himself while playing Russian roulette at a holiday dance here on Saturday (25). The shooting occurred at a show featuring the popular singer and his band. Ace had gone backstage for a five-minute break and had been fooling around with a revolver with one bullet in the chamber. Ace, whose real name was John Alexander, was one of the brightest stars in the r&b field. He rose to fame on Duke Records, coming thru with his first hit, "My Song," in 1952. Since then he has had eight hits in a row, including "Cross My Heart," "Please Forgive Me," "The Clock," "Yes, Baby" and the current "Never Let Me Go." The news of the singer's death caused a big demand for his past record hits. Peacock Records, which owns the Duke label, is rushing out an LP of Ace's sides to meet this demand. In addition, the label is releasing another new single, "Pledging My Love." The label will also release other sides made by Ace recently. Ace was 25 years old.298

298 http://www.vocalgroupharmony.com/ACE/john-ace.htm

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Chuck Berry doing his famous “duckwalk”… He was the first black artist that no white artist could “cover” and make more money on them than Chuck’s original recordings!)

While no individual can be said to have invented rock and roll, Chuck Berry comes the closest of any single figure to being the one who put all the essential pieces together. It was his particular genius to graft country & western guitar licks onto a rhythm & blues chassis in his very first single, “Maybellene.” Combined with quick-witted, rapid-fire lyrics full of sly insinuations about cars and girls, Berry laid the groundwork for not only a rock and roll sound but a rock and roll stance. The song included a brief but scorching guitar solo built around his trademark double- string licks. Accompanied by long-time piano player Johnnie Johnson and members of the Chess Records house band, including Willie Dixon, Berry wrote and performed rock and roll for the ages.

To this day, the cream of Berry’s repertoire—which includes “Johnny B. Goode,” “Sweet Little Sixteen,” “Rock and Roll Music” and “Roll Over Beethoven” — is required listening for any serious rock fan and required learning for any serious rock musician. In those days, if you knew how to play rock and roll, it was a given that you’d cut your teeth on the songs of Chuck Berry.299 By 1972, his music had grown so entrenched that he didn’t even tour with a band, preferring to recruit

299 http://www.rockhall.com/inductee/chuck-berry

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local musicians in each new town. I will never forget performing on a concert with him at the San Diego Civic Auditorium in front of a screaming crowd, loving the rockabilly nostalgia. Dozens of screaming girls were storming the stage, and security had their hands full!

Writing about the recording of cover tunes and prejudicial marketing does not imply that Bill Haley, Elvis Presley, Carl Perkins, Pat Boone, Jerry Lee Lewis and others did not deserve the fame they received. They loved the music sincerely and brought their individual styles to tunes originally done by black artists. The sad part of American history here is that the black artists were repeatedly jilted and ignored in terms of lucrative deals while their white counterparts raked in the dollars. Although the cruel days of the plantations and levees were fading some, blatant economic prejudice was alive and well in the entertainment industry as far as black artists were concerned.

“Cover tunes” are those songs originally written or performed by black artists that were redone by white artists or groups. Because of marketing prejudice, the latter often had much higher sales. In many cases, the general buying public had no idea of the origins of these covers. Just a few examples are given:

Song Title Original Artist/Group Cover

Ain’t That a Shame Fats Domino Pat Boone A Tear Fell Ivory Joe Hunter Teresa Brewer (her big hit) Hound Dog Willae Mae Thornton Elvis Presley Shake, Rattle &Roll Joe Turner Elvis Presley Sh’boom The Chords The Crew Cuts Sincerely Moonglows McGuire Sisters, (Paul Anka)

The blues-oriented rock n’ roll bands in the mid and late 1950’s fell under the rockabilly category, where white artists combined elements of country and country swing into the blues. Singers in rhythm and blues bands and rock and roll or rockabilly bands (black or white) were called “shouters”, in reference to their gutsy, powerful voices that had to preside over bands of increasing volume. There is no question that many parents didn't like the suggestive dancing, naughty lyrics, and loud, fast beat of this music. Often times, the sexual innuendos from these songs were overlooked or not noticed by many, and other times lyrics were toned down for radio airplay or censored. In 1955, a rock n' roll show in Connecticut to be headlined by Fats Domino was cancelled for fear it would lead to rioting. State police subsequently banned all further rock concerts in the state; then Boston followed suit by assembling a record censorship board to prevent “dirty rock records” from being played on the air. With censorship prevalent, white cover Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 311

records still held the slight edge in radio play but not in sales, with Pat Boone having the biggest impact with his watered down versions of R&B hits. Popular rockabilly artists were a mixture of black and white artists, just like the music was a mixture: Little Richard, Carl Perkins, Jerry Lee Lewis, Bo Diddley, Johnny Cash, Roy Orbison, Buddy Holly, Chuck Berry, and of course…Elvis.

While the portion of this text focuses on African American developments in the US, there is no question that Elvis Presley (in a huge way) helped bring attention to black music and popularize it further by his many covers of black rhythm and blues. His sincere love of black R&B, black and white gospel music, and country music was instrumental in his ability to blend a unique voice (and a good one at that!) with a mixture of black R&B, white country, good looks, and daring stage moves to create a rockabilly sound that stunned popular music in 1956. Elvis Presley made his national television debut on "The Dorsey Brothers Stage Show" in late January, and a month later his first RCA record "Heartbreak Hotel" raced up the charts neck and neck with the hit of former Sun Records cohort Carl Perkins – "Blue Suede Shoes". Presley scored five #1 hits in a seven month span, causing a sensation with his explosive performance of "Hound Dog" on the Milton Berle Show. He appeared twice on The Ed Sullivan Show in the fall to enormous ratings and released his first film that November.

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1956 was a huge year for Mr. Elvis Presley…the year he went from that "hillbilly singer", to the King of Rock-n-Roll!300

The popularity that Elvis Presley achieved in his lifetime had been unsurpassed to this point. Benny Goodman and Frank Sinatra had set new heights in popularity with young people, but the popularity of Elvis was like a firestorm. Unfortunately, Elvis Presley was unprepared for the drastic lifestyle change that a mega-superstar would have to endure, and he was the very first to have to cope with this level of pop star idolization in this country. It was a hard road indeed; yet his indelible title of “king of rock and roll” will likely remain forever.

Doo Wop When one listens to black gospel music recorded in the 1940's, its similarity to the style that came to be known as doo wop is as surprising to some as the idea that rhythm and blues of the 1940's and rock n' roll of the mid-1950’s sounded almost identical. Doo Wop was an urban, northern sound that has been romanticized as having been born on the street corner. The truth is that the first musical

300 http://www.squidoo.com/elvis-56

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experiences for these teenagers were in the home and\or black church. Most of these groups began during high school, but instead of singing gospel music, they invented new rock-oriented tunes with secular lyrics. Like black church music, these songs exploited the wide range of male voices, from a lead that often went into high falsetto, to a rich bass voice that became a significant trend for what eventually would be the defining music of the 1950's.

The roots of the doo-wop style can be found as early as the records of the Mills Brothers and the Ink Spots in the 1930’s and '40’s. The Mills Brothers turned small-group harmony into an art form by using their vocal harmony to simulate the sound of string or reed sections. The Ink Spots established the preeminence of the tenor and bass singer as members of the pop vocal ensemble. Many other groups adopted this sound, and it became so popular it almost “defines” what most people first think of when they think of the 1950’s musical time period, though it started in the late 1940’s.

The Mills Brothers301 The Ink Spots302

Doo wop was much smoother in nature than its rockabilly counterpart. The background instruments were lower in volume and more played a less prominent role. In rockabilly the words were less important than the "feel" of the song - a hard driving music with a hard backbeat. For the doo wop songs, the vocals were all- important while the instruments were strictly accompaniment. Occasionally an improvised solo might be given to someone in the group, but the emphasis on improvisation was much less than in the rhythm and blues-oriented songs. The popularity of the doo wop groups was huge, and the music still fell under the category of rock and roll - presenting a "safer" music for the younger generation

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that was not as “wild” as the raucous rockabilly. Lyrical content was fairly tame as well, compared to many rhythm and blues songs, some of which were too risqué for airplay. Consider that the very origin of the term “rock n' roll” was slang for having sex, and was used in old blues tunes in the 1930's.

Many doo wop records had such remarkably rich vocal harmonies that they virtually overwhelmed their simple instrumental accompaniments. Doo-wop's appeal to the public lay in its artistically powerful simplicity, but this “uncomplicated” type of record also was an ideal, low-budget investment for a small record company to produce. The absence of strings and horns (“sweetening”) in their production gave many of the doo-wop records of the early 1950’s an almost haunting sparseness. The Orioles' “What Are You Doing New Years Eve?” (1949) and “Crying in the Chapel” (1953), the Harptones' “A Sunday Kind of Love” (1953), and the Penguins' “Earth Angel” (1954) are excellent examples of this effect.

After the Ink Spots, the next signature groups were the Ravens and the Orioles. The Orioles, led by Sonny Til, become the first of the young black vocal groups to appeal to a teenage audience, scoring a #1 R&B hit with their debut, "It's Too Soon to Know", the first “rock ballad”. The Orioles had eight top ten hits in the next year, and were known to incite riots at their performances.

The Orioles303

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By the late 1950's and early 1960's, many doo wop groups had formed - the Platters, Drifters, Coasters, Cadillacs, Orlons, the Silhouettes, and numerous others. The term “doo wop” was derived from the background vocals of nonsense syllables that would be sung in many of the songs, exemplified by the famous song "Blue Moon" performed (not written) by the Marcels. Written in the 1930's and performed by Benny Goodman and others, it was redone with nonsense syllables in the background. It turned out that the nonsense syllables were remembered more than the actual melody itself! This song was one of the few that were successfully covered by a black group originally done by a white group.

304 The Marcels performed the doo wop version of “Blue Moon” in 1961.

305

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The Marcels also (at times) were a mixed group – two whites and three blacks, a rarity in doo wop

"Get a Job", by the Silhouettes was a very popular doo wop song with nonsense syllables that contained a message "hidden" in its innocent teen musical sound. A young wife (or girl friend) is yelling at her husband/boyfriend to “get a job” and he is telling her he his trying to get a job but hasn’t found one. The true meaning of the song was lost - perhaps because it was such a fun song to hear. However, since most doo wop songs were about teen love, this is the first song to address a severe problem for blacks in the late 1950's and early 1960's - one of unemployment.

The Silhouettes recorded “Get a Job” in 1957306

Doo Wop musicians were typical teenagers, socially awkward and shy, trying to impress the girls. While doing what made them happy at the moment, they did not possess a savvy sense of the nature of the music business at that time. For instance, they didn’t hire attorneys to interpret their contracts, so royalties were generally never received. They would agree to be paid per recording session as opposed to being compensated for their huge record sales. They usually lost the publishing rights to their original songs, and gave up untold dollars to agents, publishers, and managers in disproportionate figures. Sadly, it took nearly a decade before these unscrupulous practices were slowed down.

306 http://home.att.net/~marvart/Silhouettes/silhouettes2.jpg

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A New Decade of Change The music of the 1950's was not typically about social and political causes, but in the 1960's political issues entered into music through folk singers in the early part of the decade, and in political/civil rights songs of the late 1960's. The 1950's landmark Supreme Court decision of Brown vs. Board of Education produced the possibility for ending the "separate but equal" myth that had existed in the twentieth century, but each state used its own timetable for desegregation and in the south, schools did not desegregate for a good number of years. Even today, the effects of segregation linger nationwide, particularly as an economic factor.

The economic depression of the late 1950's was one factor that created a change in leadership in 1960, and the country was ripe for musical changes as well. The male- dominated doo wop remained popular in the early 1960's, but was getting stale; no longer innovative. achieved an immense popularity – successful in performing blues, gospel, what was later to be called “soul” music, and even country – beginning the realization that for blacks with talent - anything was possible, even making good money!

Motown In the early 1960's, the U.S. was finally ready for a new development - an African American owned record company run by African Americans. The catalyst for this company was Berry Gordy Jr., the creator and founder of Motown Records in Detroit, Michigan, nicknamed "Motortown." Gordy was also a musician and songwriter, but he realized that his main focus was to be discovering and marketing talent, and few would argue about his tremendous success in that regard. His success was no accident, for Motown Music, begun in 1959, was later to become a corporation as a result of a number of wise business choices.

Berry Gordy in his Studio in Detroit labeled “Hitsville U.S.A.”307

307 http://history.sandiego.edu/gen/recording/images4/PDRM7996a.jpg Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 318

Gordy hired high school students Eddie Holland, Lamont Dozier and Brian Holland for $2 per week plus 1/2 cent per record royalties to write songs. By 1973 when Gordy left the company at age 46, he had built the "nation's largest black-owned entertainment conglomerate." Motown had a phenomenal hit ratio of 75% (songs released that made the national Top 40 lists). Motown combined elements of blues, gospel, swing and pop with a thumping backbeat for a new that was instantly recognizable. Competing for teen attention primarily against records by , who were at the height of their popularity, Motown radically altered the public's perception of black music, which for years had been kept out of the mainstream. White youths as well as black were captivated by the rhythmic new sound, though the musicians who produced it were black, and many of the performers were teenagers from Detroit's housing projects and rundown neighborhoods. Prodding and grooming those raw talents, Gordy transformed them into a roster of dazzling artists who stunned the pop music world.308

Gordy was best known for discovering talent. The number of successful black artists that came through the company was staggering. The first two major Motown artists were Barrett Strong and (and the Miracles). Although Barrett Strong had Motown’s first hit with “Money, That’s What I Want” in 1959, it was Smokey Robinson and the Miracles who really put Motown “on the map” with their creative songs and the magic of Smokey Robinson’s voice. Their first hit was “Shop Around” in 1960, followed shortly by the hit “You’ve Really Got a Hold on Me.”

308 Ibid. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 319

Smokey Robinson (left) and the Miracles309

Gordy also marketed "girl groups" galore, the 1960's answer to the male-oriented doo wop groups. Such groups as the Marvelettes, Ronettes, the Crystals and the Supremes were prime examples - the latter becoming the most successful group in Motown history with twelve #1 hits between 1964-1969.

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310 The hit “Please Mr. Postman” was huge in 1961 for the Marvelettes

The Supremes rose from the poverty of Detroit’s Brewster housing project to become Motown’s most consistent hitmakers and the most popular female group of the Sixties. They sang in a polished style that bridged the worlds of pop and soul. Their greatest success came with songs tailor-made for them by Motown’s peerless in-house writing and production team of Brian Holland, Lamont Dozier and Eddie Holland. Under the watchful eye of Motown founder Berry Gordy, the partnership between the Supremes and Holland-Dozier-Holland yielded an astounding run of Number One hits at mid-decade.

310 http://bvikkivintage.blogspot.com/2009/11/marvelettes.html

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311 Holland-Dozier-Holland – a magical combination

In June 1965, the Supremes set a record for the most consecutive Number One hits by an American group when “Back in My Arms Again” rose to the top of the Billboard singles chart. The other hits in that streak were “Where Did Our Love Go,” “Baby Love,” “Come See About Me” and “Stop! In the Name of Love.”

This milestone is all the more impressive because it occurred at the height of the British Invasion - a period when beat groups from abroad otherwise ruled the charts. The Supremes were America’s ingenues, exuding a stylish charm and soulfulness that appealed across the board to black and white listeners at a time when racial divides were coming down. Known in-house as Motown’s “sweethearts,” Berry Gordy saw the potential in them from the beginning: “All three girls had qualities so unique I’d often think: ‘If they could make us feel the way we do, what could they do to the world at large?’” he wrote in his autobiographyTo Be Loved. Not only did the Supremes come to epitomize the Motown sound, they earned a place in music history as singers and showgirls whose popularity in the sixties was second only to the Beatles’.312

311 http://www.songwriteruniverse.com/images/hdh2.jpg 312 http://www.rockhall.com/inductee/the-supremes Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 322

313 Diana Ross, Florence Ballard, and Mary Wilson of the Supremes were model examples of the high degree of glamour, talent, showmanship and stage presence expected of Motown groups.

By 1966, three out of every four Motown releases made the charts! In 1967, Motown had six of the top ten R&B albums for that year. Other famous Motown artists of the 1960's were the Contours, Mary Wells, Marvin Gaye, Gladys Knight and the Pips, Martha Reeves and the Vandellas, the Four Tops, the Temptations, Little (the 12-year old genius) and the Jackson Five (with Michael Jackson).

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314 “My Guy”, written by Smokey Robinson and performed by 21 year-old Mary Wells, was a #1 hit in 1964.

315 “How Sweet it is” (1965) was the first of a number of hits to show off Marvin Gaye’s velvety smooth voice.

314 http://ec1.images-amazon.com/images/I/41VPFE9S4NL._AA240_.jpg 315 http://www.bridalwave.tv/howsweet.jpg

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316 Two major hits for Martha and the Vandellas were “Dancing in the Streets” (1963) and “Heat Wave” (1964).

Major hits for the Four Tops were “Baby I Need Your Loving” (1964), “I Can’t Help Myself” and “Reach Out I’ll Be There” (the latter two in 1965).317

316 http://rokpool.com/files/artist/martha-n-vandellas_l.jpg?0 317 www.soulwalking.co.uk/Four%20Tops.html Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 325

Thanks to their fine-tuned choreography and even finer harmonies, the Temptations became the definitive male vocal group of the 1960’s. One of Motown's most elastic acts, they tackled both lush pop and politically-charged funk with equal flair, and weathered a steady stream of changes in personnel and consumer tastes with rare dignity and grace.318 Formed in 1960 as "The Elgins", the group consisted of Eddie Kendricks, Paul Williams, Otis Williams, Melvin Franklin, and Al Bryant. They were signed by Berry Gordy and Motown in 1961. Gordy changed their name to "The Temptations". In 1963 Al Bryant was replaced with David Ruffin. After struggling at Motown without a hit for 3 years, they finally had their first hit in 1964 produced by William "Smokey" Robinson, "The Way You Do the Things You Do".319 Another one of their signature hits was “My Girl” which topped the charts in 1965.

The impact of Gordy’s hired (particularly the Brian Holland-Lamont Dozier-Eddie Holland combination) on Motown’s success was huge. Some worked in teams where one person would write the music, while another would create the lyrics, and a third person would produce an effective musical arrangement. Their ability to find a "catchy” (memorable) melody or "hook" of the tune, and their knack with turning these tunes into creative arrangements made the music of Motown a significant force. Arrangers knew how to “hit ‘em with the hook” right away, so that young teens could tell instantly (within a second, literally) what the tune was – either when the “hook” was played immediately at the beginning of the song, or through a catchy instrumental introduction that would tell the listener clearly what the tune was within one second. This was to satisfy the restless teenage mind that would constantly change radio stations to whatever hit they wanted to hear. If they knew what the tune was and liked it, they would keep it tuned to that radio station, and judging by Motown’s successful sales – the techniques worked. Here are some examples:

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Tune Artist Presentation My Guy Mary Wells First two chords = instant recognition, hook follows Stop in the Name of Love-Supremes The word “stop” appears on first note How Sweet it is Marvin Gaye Hook done right after a short drum fill My Girl Temptations Guitar’s unique sound and riff easily recognizable Heat Wave Martha and the Vandellas – the long big band intro is unique I’ll Be There Four Tops Flute introduction is unique for instant recognition Everything’s Alright Stevie Wonder Horns lead intro for instant recognition

Another wise business decision was to have a number of the groups travel together in what became known as the “Motown Revue.” Instead of having each group use a separate backup band, the Revue used a versatile backup group to record in the studio, and usually used one group on the road as well. The studio group became known as the Funk Brothers, and this group had a knack for finding just the right "feel" or "groove" to suit the individual group style. The style of Motown was generally quite vocally-oriented, so the versatility of the Funk Brothers often went unnoticed.

One of the changes that came about in the 1960’s was the expectation for a higher quality of recording in the studio. The recordings of the 1950's were rather raw and rough, and recordings were usually done in just a few "takes". One person who raised the standard of production in the studio through his innovations was Phil Spector. Although a musician and songwriter, his forte came in the studio, where he mastered the process of "overdubbing" - the ability to record one track of sound, and then rerecord it repeatedly to produce a much bigger, fuller sound. He would record each track separately, and then record a new track over another track, adding layers of sound in the studio after the live sessions were completed. For example, Spector could take one violin, record that one instrument's part a number of times, and the resulting sound would be a string section. Spector’s studio productions were far more sophisticated than the sounds of the 1950's. One good example of this sophistication, (nicknamed the "wall of sound") is present in the song "You've Lost That Lovin' Feelin" by the Righteous Brothers. The background sounds add a considerable dimension to the song.

In the studio, the Spector-influenced studio sound helped Motown set new levels of expectations in the final product of a record. Perfection, or near perfection became the norm, and the resulting sound or "mix" was geared for the teenage market. With the advent of the ever-popular transistor radio, and the fact that teens were listening to more rock music in their cars than from the jukeboxes of the 1950's, the mix of the music was deliberately set for those "tinny-sounding" radios. Unique sound mixes gave a number of songs a distinction, such as the mix in the background vocals to “Please Mr. Postman” by the Marvelettes, which gave them Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 327

a unique, almost “little girl” sound. Unfortunately, Spector’s achievements have been marred by his abusive personality, which has led to his serving a long prison sentence for the murder of his girlfriend.

In addition to great talent, songwriting expertise, studio and performance perfection, the Motown Artists were expected to have a stage appearance unsurpassed by any previous popular music styles. To achieve this, artists were required to attend classes in a "finishing school" of sorts, to learn how to conduct themselves on stage, talk on the telephone, conduct interviews, put on makeup, and of course, how to dance and move on stage. The visual aspects of Motown cannot be underestimated, for Gordy knew that his artists would have to be ‘that much better’ to succeed in a market previously completely controlled by whites. The intense choreography, the glittery tuxedos, and stunning evening gowns of the Motown artists did not come about by chance, but were carefully planned as to what would be “acceptable” to the general public in terms of black popular music.

The big impact of Motown in the 1960's might have even been greater had it not been for the phenomenal success of the Beatles and other British groups. Nevertheless, the Motown groups proved beyond a doubt that black-oriented music would continue to have an impact on the music world, and succeeded in significantly raising the standards of the music industry.

By 1970, Motown's monopoly on the black music market came to a predictable end, as the democratic process encouraged competition to entice artists to go to different record companies. It was precisely this competition that produced a positive result for Stevie Wonder, 21 years old in 1971. Because of his outstanding musical talent and songwriting ability, he was able to procure something that few musicians received previously - artistic license to perform the songs the way he wanted them performed. Typically, recording artists had to answer to a producer or manager or both in regard to whether their melodies, harmonies, and lyrics were acceptable. Often, final products would not resemble the original intention of the songwriters, so Stevie Wonder was able to insist on doing songs the way he wanted them done, or he would leave the company. Berry Gordy, Jr. made the right decision by keeping him – with “artistic license”.

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Little Stevie Wonder in 1963320 During the childhood stage of his career, Stevie amazed audiences with his exciting performances, and continued hitting the charts with such singles as "Hey Harmonica Man," "Work Out Stevie, Work Out," and "Contract On Love" to name a few. In 1964 Wonder dropped the "Little" appellation. His late teen years saw continued success with "Uptight (Everything's Alright)," "For Once in My Life," "My Cherie Amour," and "Signed, Sealed, Delivered I'm Yours." Throughout this period Stevie worked on improving his skills as a singer, keyboardist, songwriter, and producer. In fact, he co-wrote most of his singles from 1967 onward, as well as the Smokey Robinson hit "The Tears of a Clown".321 While Wonder got his start through Motown, he has continued a songwriting and performing legacy for over forty years.

The success of Motown productions continued on a smaller scale in the 1970’s. Marvin Gaye and Tami Terrell were a very successful until Tami collapsed on stage and died soon afterwards as a result of a brain tumor in 1970. Diana Ross continued as a solo artist and maintained considerable success. Jr. Walker and the All Stars were one of the more rhythm and blues-oriented Motown groups that featured Walker's saxophone playing, while the Jackson Five presented a very young lead singer whose career would be one of the most significant in rock history. Other well-known Motown Artists after 1970 were the Commodores, , Rick James, and Teena Marie. In 1988, Gordy sold the company for 61 million dollars, heralding the end of an era.

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322 The Jackson Five, with 10 year-old Michael Jackson, were (arguably) the last of Motown’s “supergroups”. In January 1970, the Jackson 5 released their first single, "I Want You Back," a corporation composition that had originally been intended for Gladys Knight. It was an instant smash, hitting number one on both the pop and R&B charts. Their next two singles "ABC" and "The Love You Save" (both from their second album ABC), solidified the group's so-called bubblegum- and certified them as pop sensations.323

Blues after Rock and Roll All through the 1950's and 1960's, urban blues groups continued their tradition. Famous artists taking the Mississippi Delta tradition to the rest of the world were John Lee Hooker, B.B. King, Albert King, and Howlin' Wolf. In the late 1950's and early 1960's, black urban blues bands continued to struggle economically. Groups from Great Britain loved the American rhythm and blues sounds and copied them into their own renditions. The Beatles, Rolling Stones, and the Animals played black rhythm and blues early in their careers. In the late 1960's, other groups such as John Mayall and the Blues Breakers, 's various groups (including Cream), and Ten Years After were just a few of the British groups that ironically brought a blues revival back to the country of its origin - the U.S. Since the 1970's, blues is still a vibrant form with many famous artists such as Buddy Guy, Albert Collins, and Robert Cray.

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324 A young B.B. King

Ray Charles If one were to look up the word "soul" in the dictionary, a picture of Ray Charles might well suffice! In general, soul music combined black rhythm and blues with gospel elements, and brought these elements up to date in a 1960's context. Ray Charles played R&B at first, but then added country and pop tunes to his repertoire, with his own soulful, personal insignia. Ray Charles went even further and began taking overtly religious songs such as I Got Religion and secularized them to become songs like I Got a Woman. In the process he alienated many religious blacks who thought his music was the “music of the devil”. Despite that controversy, there are very few others who have had more of an impact in bringing black music into mainstream popularity than Ray Charles.

Born in Albany, Georgia, Ray Charles Robinson (1930-2004) grew up in Greenville, Florida. At age six he started to lose his sight from glaucoma after traumatically watching watching his brother drown in the washtub his mother used for take-in laundry. At the age of seven, from 1937 to 1945 he attended the St. Augustine

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School for the Deaf and Blind, where he learned piano, clarinet, and alto saxophone, how to compose for big bands, and how to read and write music in Braille. Orphaned at fifteen, Charles struck out on his own performing in bands around Florida. In 1948 at the age of seventeen Charles took his $600 savings and moved to Seattle. There he formed the Maxim Trio, a group grounded in the style of Nat "King" Cole and Charles Brown. The Maxim Trio had a major R&B hit in 1949 with "Confession Blues" on the Downbeat (later Swing Time) label. It was during this time that he first began using heroin. Charles toured with blues artist Lowell Fulson in the early '50’s, having R&B hits with "Baby Let Me Hold Your Hand" and "Kiss Me Baby" on the small Los Angeles based Swingtime Label.

In 1952 Atlantic Records purchased Charles's recording contract from Swingtime for $2500. Charles gave up the Nat "King" Cole stylization and began adapting gospel music techniques to blues lyrics. He soon had a hit with "It Should Have Been Me." In 1954 he arranged and played piano on Guitar Slim's top R&B hit "The Things I Used to Do" for Specialty Records and formed his own band. In 1955 Charles had a hit in both the R&B and pop fields with his own composition "I've Got a Woman." Using top flight studio musicians Charles had hits consistently on the R&B charts through the late '50’s with "A Fool for You," "Drown In My Own Tears," Hallelujah I Love Her So," and "Lonely Avenue," which was the recording debut of his female backup group the Raelettes. He also became popular with jazz fans, recording two highly acclaimed records and performing a set at the 1958 Newport Jazz festival in 1959. Charles established himself as a popular recording artist and a pioneer of soul music with the release of his own top R&B/pop hit composition "What’d I Say."

Sensing that Atlantic was still basically an R&B organization, Charles moved to ABC-Paramount Records in late 1959. Through 1961, he had top pop hits with "Georgia On My Mind," "Hit the Road Jack," "Ruby," and "Unchain My Heart." He also recorded Genius + Soul = Jazz for Impulse (ABC's jazz subsidiary label), yielding a near smash pop/ top R&B hit with the instrumental "One Mint Julip." This album and one recorded with Betty Carter for ABC-Paramount brought him increasing popularity with jazz fans, black and white.

In 1962 Charles formed Ray Charles Enterprises, comprised of Tangerine Records, Tangerine Music, and Racer Music Company, opening studios and offices in Los Angeles in 1963. By then he was using forty piece orchestras and full vocal choruses for his recordings. With his full commercial sound, his Modern Sounds in Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 332

Country and Western became phenomenally popular producing crossover smashes with "I Can't Stop Loving You," "Born to Lose," and "You Don't Know Me." Within a year volume two was released and had crossover hits "You Are My Sunshine," "Your Cheating Heart," and "Take These Chains From My Heart." On ABC Charles had major pop hits with "Busted," "That Lucky Old Sun," "Crying Time," and "Together Again."

During the ‘60’s Charles became involved in films, appearing in the 1962 film Swinging Along, and the 1966 British film Ballad in Blue, and recording the soundtracks for The Cincinnati Kid (1965) and In the Heat of the Night (1967). By this time he was performing on the circuit, touring with his own package revue from 1969 into the '70’s.

In 1973 Charles left ABC Records, retaining the rights to his ABC material and transferring his Tangerine operation to the new label Crossover. During 1976 he recorded Porgy and Bess with Cleo Laine for RCA Records. In 1977 he returned to Atlantic, moving to Columbia in the '80’s and Warner Brothers in the '90’s. In 1978 Dial Press published his autobiography and in 1980 appeared in The Blues Brothers movie and scored a minor country hit for his duet with Clint Eastwood, "Beers to You, from the film Any Which Way You Can. Charles had a major country hit with "Born To Love Me" in 1982 and later recorded duets with country stars on Friendship. The album yielded five country hits, including "We Didn't See a Thing" (with George Jones), "Seven Spanish Angels"(with Willie Nelson) and "Two Like Us" (with Hank Williams Jr.) Charles also played a major role in the recording of USA for Africa's "We Are the World" single in 1985.

1n 1989 Charles had his first major pop hit in over twenty years with with "I'll Be Good to You," featuring himself and . In the '90’s Charles appeared in commercials for Pepsi and was the subject of a PBS documentary.325

Memphis Soul One of the first groups labeled as “soul music” came out of Stax Records, a small record company in Memphis, Tennessee. The hard-driving Booker T. and the MG's (Memphis Group) consisted of organ, (electric) bass, and drums. The use of electric bass began in the early 1960's surf groups, and has been used in most rock groups since. Booker T. and the MG’s was an integrated group as well, and their first major hit was the instrumental “Green Onions” done in 1962.

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Booker T. and the MG's -- Donald "Duck" Dunn, Booker T. Jones, Steve Cropper, and Al Jackson -- provided the rock-solid soul backing on countless Atlantic singles with such hits as "Green Onions," "Hip Hug-Her," and "Time Is Tight."326

Integration in music increased in the 1960’s, and Memphis seemed to be the perfect place where country and blues would come together. Stax records recorded groups that brought back the shouting style of rhythm and blues, but in a more modern context. With the civil rights movement using the terms "soul" and "black power" in the same time period, groups that were known for hard driving rhythms and gut- wrenching vocals became known as soul groups. Major artists of soul were Ray Charles, Sam and Dave, Wilson Pickett, Al Green, Percy Sledge, Aretha Franklin, Sam Cooke, , Ben E. King, Solomon Burke, Otis Redding, and the "Godfather of Soul" himself - James Brown. With a few exceptions (James Brown's group, for instance), most soul groups abandoned the choreographed slickness of Motown for raw energy. For example, Otis Redding’s performances were full of raw energy sans choreography or fancy outfits, and far more passioned than the relatively mellow “Dock of the Bay”, a song he recorded just three days before his untimely death in 1967. In addition to Memphis, other soul groups recorded in Chicago and Muscle Shoals, Alabama.

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Otis Redding sings in Paris, 1962327

Aretha Franklin”s most successful hit singles were “Chain of Fools”, “You Make Me Feel Like a Natural Woman”, “Think”, “Baby I Love You”, “The House That Jack Built”, and “Respect”, which became her signature song. After the R&B category was added to the Grammy Awards in 1968, she was virtually unchallenged, winning eight successive awards for Best Female R&B Vocal Performance. She later added three more Grammies in this category in the 1980’s.328

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It was not the song or arrangement itself that was so important - it was what the artist did with the song that mattered. For example, the song “I Feel Good” was not necessarily the greatest composition or arrangement in itself, but after James Brown got through with the song, audiences went wild. Brown coined a frenzied style of choppy rhythms and jazzy horns, coupled with stage histrionics and a grotesquely choreographed show, first documented on “Live at the Apollo” (1962). At the same time, his visceral falsetto shrieks amid guttural wails (and lyrics full of sexual innuendos) invented a new narrative form. With “Papa's Got a Brand New Bag” (1965) “I Got You” (1965) and “Cold Sweat” (1967), Brown coined a purely- percussive style of soul, the predecessor of "funk". (Papa’s brand new bag was dancing). He also associated himself with Black Nationalism with “Say It Aloud I'm Black and Proud” (1968). The novelties “Give It Up” (1969), “Mother Popcorn” (1969) and “Superbad” (1970) further streamlined the idea and led to the quintessential Brown-ian funk songs, “Sex Machine” (1970), with “Bootsy Collins” on bass (and a piano figure that virtually invented house-music), and “King Heroin” (1972). The combination of falsetto, metallic guitar strumming, running bass lines, noisy horn section and pulsing polyrhythm was dance music to the max.

329 James Brown was a legendary, high-energy performer whose act was impossible to follow!

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Jimi Hendrix An important African American musician who, even forty-two years after his death, remains an icon for rock and early heavy metal guitar was Jimi Hendrix. As one of the most influential rock guitarists in the modern electric guitar era, Hendrix’s creative contributions were mainly in the area of outstanding, high energy improvisations, and his use and mastery of "feedback,” which refers to the technique of manipulating the guitar's position and distance from its amplifier to create a loud screeching of sounds that were actually overtones of the notes being played. Hendrix had the uncanny ability to make the guitar sound like a literal explosion of sound effects.

Jimi Hendrix expanded the range and vocabulary of the electric guitar into areas no musician had ever ventured before. Many would claim him to be the greatest guitarist ever to pick up the instrument. At the very least his creative drive, technical ability and painterly application of such effects as wah-wah and distortion forever transformed the sound of rock and roll. Hendrix helped usher in the age of psychedelia with his 1967 debut album Are You Experienced? The impact of his brief but meteoric career on popular music continues to be felt.

More than any other musician, Jimi Hendrix realized the fullest range of sound that could be obtained from an amplified instrument. Many musical currents came together in his playing - free jazz, delta blues, acid rock, hardcore funk, and the songwriting of and the Beatles all figured as influences. Yet the songs and sounds generated by Hendrix were original, otherworldly and virtually indescribable. In essence, Hendrix channeled the music of the cosmos, anchoring it to the earthy beat of rock and roll.330

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331 Jimi Hendrix was known to set fire to his guitar during the last tune of some of his concerts.

Many guitarists since have copied his techniques and carried them further into the sounds of heavy metal in the 1970's. Unfortunately, Hendrix did not survive his drug and alcohol habit, and did not live long enough to see the fruits of his creativity. He died in 1970 in what was believed to be drug-related overdose.

Funk Soul music continued on into the 1970's, but gravitated to a new name for virtually the same type of music, but as the decade progressed, the sound was changing somewhat. Gradually, the political messages lessened, and the main idea of this music was to dance, have fun, and party. The term “soul” became more generic, and the term “funk” or “funky” came into play. The typical funk band had a rhythm section of drums, electric bass, one or two guitars, electric keyboards (organ and/or electric piano), a horn section, and usually several singers.

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A main characteristic of funk music is that the correct "groove" must be set up by the bass and drums. The drums set up a driving beat, and a repeated, syncopated bass line is the nucleus of the "funky" tune. The "chunka-chunka" rhythms of the electric guitar go on top of that, and a smooth, sustained keyboard part goes on top of that. Add some clever, syncopated horn riffs, bring the singer(s) in, and the funk arrangement is born.

Like the psychedelic music born a few years earlier, many funk tunes contained long improvisations. Jazz/rock influences and Latin Percussion were also added with some funk tunes. With the advent of FM radio stations, there was also a newfound market for longer songs that was cultivated in the late 1960's when the psychedelic rock movement occurred. Funk contained many similarities to jazz-rock groups, with perhaps the only perceivable difference being that the groove of the funk groups was more repetitive, improvised solos would be shorter, and lyrics tended to be somewhat unimportant in a socio-political sense.

A very creative artist (and cult figure) of early funk music was George Clinton, whose bands Parliament and Funkadelic featured keyboardist Bernie Worrell (who in 1978 pioneered the synthesized bass lines) and James Brown's bassist William "Bootsy" Collins. Clinton adopted the ethos of the psychedelic counterculture, the satirical attitude of the freaks – a sound that mixed jazz, soul, Jimi Hendrix and acid-rock, with lyrics that touched on pornographic, horror and science fiction themes. Their eccentric vaudeville had no rivals (such as the time they mooned the crowd at RFK stadium in Washington DC, and were tear-gassed by police during their song “Loose Booty”. Clinton has been labeled the “Frank Zappa of funk music.”

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George Clinton (left) and Parliament in the 1970’s332

Funk music was the soundtrack of the mid 1970’s, embraced by combos such as the eclectic Sly and the Family Stone, Ronald Bell's Kool And The (the most faithful to 's model) the vocal trio Labelle, featuring Patti LaBelle (Holt) and Nona Hendryx, the Commodores, led by tenor saxophonist Lionel Richie, drummer Maurice White's jazz-soul-rock fusion concept Earth Wind And Fire, with Philip Bailey's effeminate falsetto, Larry Dunn's sleek keyboards, and a Stax-like horn section; the percussive Ohio Players, Harry Wayne Casey's and 's exuberant K.C. and the Sunshine Band, numerous groups that created what became knowon as the quintessential "Miami sound”; Larry Graham's Graham Central Station, and, in Britain, there was the Average White Band.

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Sly and the Family Stone, March 1969 – the first major rock band to showcase a fully integrated line-up in terms of race and gender, Sly & the Family Stone changed the course of popular music through hip-hop and beyond.333

334 Earth, Wind & Fire – an exemplary funk band, still tour today

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Earth, Wind & Fire drew from various streams of black music, synthesizing soul, funk, R&B, pop, gospel and African styles into a polished, precision-tooled approach. During the latter half of the Seventies, they issued a string of albums that changed the face of black popular music, linking thrilling music with uplifting messages of racial pride, African consciousness and spiritual unity. A large and visually resplendent ensemble, its members often wore colorful African robes.

The group was founded by Memphis-born Maurice White, a session drummer who joined Chess Records’ studio band from 1963 to 1967. Following a stint with the Ramsey Lewis Trio, he formed Earth, Wind & Fire in Los Angeles in 1969. A definitive nine-man lineup coalesced in the early 1970’s around a core of White, who sang and played the African kalimba; his bass-playing brother, Verdine White; and vocalist Philip Bailey. The group’s tight, punchy horn section became a featured attraction, but the musical currents ran deeply. “Our whole vision,” Bailey has commented, “derived from the greats before us: Miles Davis and John Coltrane and all the great singers.... We were jazz musicians at heart playing popular music.” Moreover, they were driven by idealism. “The essence of this band is hope,” White has said.

Earth, Wind & Fire attracted a then-untapped audience of hip, young urban audience of blacks and whites that reacted to the energetic music and charismatic presentation. Their breakthrough album That’s the Way of the World (1975), yielded “Shining Star,” a Grammy Award-winning #1 hit on both the pop and R&B charts. Earth, Wind & Fire’s conquest of the Seventies continued with an unbroken run of multiplatinum albums: Gratitude (1975), Spirit (1976), All ‘n All (1977), The Best of Earth, Wind & Fire, Vol. 1 (1978) and I Am (1979).335

The entrancing rhythmic groove of funk music became so popular in the mid 1970's that it created a dance craze mistakenly labeled as a musical form. As more people went to discotheques in Europe, the same occurred in the U.S. As the market grew larger, the dance steps required a similarity of style and beat. People wanted the funky music in a somewhat narrowed context - one that came to be known as disco.

Disco In New York, gays took the same idea of the black dance parties popular in that time period, and used the same music for their parties, staged in their private clubs, or "". Discos became so successful that they transformed rapidly from a marginalized, discriminated against, underground phenomenon to a chic craze for yuppies that included trademarks of the hippy culture (free-form dancing, psychedelic lights, colorful costumes, and hallucinogens).

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336 While funk music was booming, orchestral soul reached a new apex with Barry White's scores, distinct bass voice, and sexy postures.

In 1974, Kraftwerk's Autobahn became the first hit single entirely played on electronic instruments and boasting an electronic rhythm. In 1975 Robert Moog introduced the Polymoog, the first commercial polyphonic synthesizer, which greatly reduced the cost of producing . Italian-born German keyboardist and producer , who had been manufacturing dance singles since the late 1960’s, is the man who can be credited with wedding Kraftwerk's robotic music (a very European, elitist phenomenon) with soul/funk music (a very American and grass-roots genre). Moroder understood the power of electronic keyboards both for "singing" the melody and for "beating" the rhythm. His first experiment was with American soul diva Donna Summer’s “Love to Love You Baby” (1975) (over 17 minutes long) which co-invented disco-music and launched the idea of the extended "disco mix".

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Donna Summer in 1975337

Van McCoy's “The ” (1975) set the standard in Manhattan, centering the harmony around the hypnotic beat of the rhythm section. The fad of the 12" singles began when Walter Gibbons released an 11-minute version of Double Exposure's “Ten Percent” (1976). Black and gay disc-jockeys resurrected old, obscure R&B songs, added a pulsing beat and extended their duration (a technique imported from Jamaica) in order to make people dance for as long as possible. Disco music became a producer's music and a studio-oriented music, propelled by artificial instruments, the exact opposite of rock music, which emphasized the live experience and was played with electric instruments. The difference was more than just technical: rock music was a macho, straight, aggressive happening, whereas disco-music was a sensual, effeminate, languid affair.

The Bee Gees, the veteran Australian brothers led by songwriter Barry Gibb, who had been stars of the Sixties, converted to keyboard-oriented funk music, and then scored the soundtrack for the film Saturday Night Fever (1977). That, thanks to “Staying Alive” and “Night Fever”, launched a world-wide fad for disco music.

The Trammps were among the first soul groups to benefit from the new fad. Chic (a quintet led by black virtuoso bassist Bernard Edwards and guitarist Nile

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Rodgers) promoted the most abused stereotype: minimalist funk rhythm propelled by machine-like drumming (Tony Thompson) and embellished with strings and female singers. Their classic formulation of the dogma can be found in “Dance Dance Dance” (1977), “Le Freak” (1978) and “Good Times” (1979), three anthems of the sociopolitical decadence of the era. Rodgers went on to become one of the most distinctive producers of dance music.

The female aspect was much more relevant in disco music than it had ever been in rock music. Several of the early disco singles were sung by women, establishing a primacy that would endure through the years. The female gay iconography owed a lot to Jamaican model Grace Jones, whose glacial, androgynous, futuristic, panther- like looks and monotonous vocals redefined the concept of elegance for the disco masses. “I Need A Man” (1977) was the hit that created the cult. She represented the terminal point of a disease that had spread from the Lulu of the expressionists to Marlene Dietrich to decadence-rock. Other prototypical "disco divas" were Gloria Gaynour, who had pioneered the extended mix with the cover “Never Can Say Goodbye” (1974), and whose “I Will Survive” (1979) remains one of the era's quintessential anthems, and Thelma Huston, Shirley Goodman (of Shirley & Lee), and Sylvia Robinson (of Mickey & Sylvia).

At the end of 1976 Blondie bridged the gap between disco-music and punk-rock, the two genres that were advancing dramatically on western civilization. By promoting disco-music beyond gays and blacks, the 1977 film "Saturday Night Fever" launched “disco fever” around the world.

The sound of disco-music began to change after 1978. Dave Smith (of Sequential Circuits) introduced the "Prophet-5", the world's first microprocessor-based musical instrument, thus ushering in the age of digital synthesizers, which replaced the voltage-controlled (analog) synthesizers. The year before Roland had introduced the first rhythm machine for the masses, and in 1978 Roland introduced the MC-4 sequencer, the first sequencer for the masses. Sequencing, drum machines and the new synthesizers came to characterize the sound of the disco era.

As white (and often European) producers began to compose suites inspired by classical music and easy-listening music, employing batteries of drum machines, string sections and horn solos, disco became less and less "black" and more and more "white".

The golden era of disco music ended in 1979, the year of the anthems, notably the Village People's “YMCA” (1979), and Sister (Debbie) Sledge's “We Are Family” Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 345

(1979). Just like the hippy civilization announced the commercialization of psychedelic rock, gays announced the "commodization" of disco music.338

The very word "disco" brought groans from the generation that grew up in the 1980's and early 1990's, brainwashed to dislike the term. The backlash to disco that began in a spectacular demonstration in Chicago's old Comiskey Park showed an intense dislike for a specific musical style that once had black origins, yet the rage against disco was rarely racially motivated at all. The anti-disco movement was more a backlash against the over-commercialization to the point where the general American public revolted.

DISCO INFERNO: Thousands of people rush the field at Comiskey Park in Chicago during the infamous Disco Sucks Riot of July 12, 1979. More than 50,000 disco-hating fans had descended on the baseball park to watch several thousand disco records get blown up. Sadly, violence and destruction soon erupted.339

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From this author's viewpoint, (having played in funk bands in the 1970's), disco was not a separate style at all, but merely a small outgrowth of funk. Musicians who recorded disco music were usually excellent musicians, for they were essentially the same musicians that had been recording funk. Disco had a certain image commercialized by the music industry, but musically was very limited in scope, becoming locked into a specific and narrow tempo range from about 112 to 132 beats per minute. The overriding feature from the drummer would be a constant, heavy bass drum on every downbeat. Other than that, all of the features of funk music remained. Disco was an interracial music, yet what was called disco in 1977 and 1978 was much like some of the funk tunes of 1975.

What changed was that disco became an image - one represented by the ritzy Studio 54 Club in New York. Anyone who was anybody would try to get in to the club to dance endless disco all night long every night of the week. The American public could not continue to invest in this banal dream. Most Americans could not afford to go to clubs like Studio 54 every night, (plus they had to get up and go to work in the morning) and could not afford the now lavish clothes one had to wear to a disco, plus could not relate to the images of glitzy, rich-looking disco groups. Most of all, the U.S. public began to surmise that all disco sounded the same - and much of it did. It is impossible to continue to do songs in such a narrow rhythmic and tempo framework, and call it a musical style. To label disco a musical style of rock is comparable to calling the macarena a Latin American musical style, when it is merely a specific dance style. Disco was an image that peaked from 1976-1978. While the radically different and new captured much attention, funk music continued to evolve and split into two styles in the 1980's - R&B, and hip hop.

1980's R&B By the 1980's, it was difficult to label what rock music was anymore because it was so diverse. The same problem was true with jazz. One cannot say the words "jazz" and "rock" without needing clarification. If one says "I don't like jazz music" do they mean they simultaneously dislike Dixie, swing, bop, cool, modal, free, fusion, rock-jazz, and any combination of the above? If one dislikes rock do they dislike old rhythm and blues, rockabilly, doo wop, folk rock, British rock, Motown, psychedelic, hard rock, country rock, soul music, funk, heavy metal, jazz rock, punk rock, R&B, hip hop, alternative, and . . . how does blues fit in? The reader can see that the diversification of American music makes narrow-mindedness rather easy. Many pick one or two of the above styles and reject all other styles based on a very limited amount of hearing or education about that style.

Unquestionably, black musicians were doing well in the late 1970’s and early 1980’s. Michael Jackson became independent in 1979 under the tutelage of R&B and veteran jazz producer . Michael Jackson was a singer, songwriter, dancer and Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 347

celebrity icon with a vast catalog of hit records and countless awards to his credit. Beyond that, he transfixed the world like few entertainers have before or since. As a solo performer, he enjoyed a level of superstardom previously known only to Elvis Presley, the Beatles and Frank Sinatra. As one of the most international icons in history, he suffered a scandalous personal life, and like Elvis Presley, he simply couldn’t go anywhere without causing a riot; not to mention a host of health problems that led to his untimely and controversial death.

340 Michael Jackson released the greatest album of all times (if sales define greatness), Thriller (1982).

Like its predecessor, Off The Wall (1979), and its successor, Bad (1987), this trivial collage of pop-soul clichés and dance beats, stylishly and masterfully orchestrated by Jones employing state-of-the-art technology, was complemented by the deliberate construction of a surreal persona, a sort of fairy-tale figure, half child and half man, tenderly insecure and slightly hysterical, sex-neutral, race-neutral and age-neutral, readily identified by his mask, his costumes and his moves. Whether his music was pop or R&B was hard to label.

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In fact, the very definition of rock, or rock n' roll was challenged by MTV in the early 1980's. The impact of music videos in the marketplace was huge. In the early 1980's, however, the British, Australian, and hard rock groups in the U.S. had a virtual lock on the video music industry. One reason for this was that British and Australian groups had already been using videos to promote their music for some time. As it caught on in the U.S., hard rock groups dominated at first, and then videos by other groups followed. The diversification of MTV was not an easy one, for at first, the station refused to play certain videos by African Americans such as Michael Jackson. For whatever reason, the station's initial stance was that Michael Jackson's music "wasn't rock n' roll", and that MTV only played rock music. The station's definition of rock music took an abrupt change when Capitol Records threatened to pull all of its artists off of MTV (nearly 50% of MTV's videos) unless they began to include Michael Jackson videos and music of other African Americans as well. MTV complied, and slowly added black music to their video playlists.

Released in November 1982, Thriller yielded a staggering seven hits: “The Girl Is Mine” (#2) “Billie Jean” (#1), “Beat It” (#1), “Wanna Be Startin’ Somethin’” (#5), “Human Nature” (#7), “P.Y.T. (Pretty Young Thing)” (#10) and “Thriller” (#4). The album received sales boosts with Jackson’s electrifying performance on the May 1983 Motown 25th Anniversary Special, where he premiered his gravity-defying “,” and the year’s-end release of the 14-minute mini-movie based on the song “Thriller.” The latter is considered the most important video clip in music history. Jackson employed the burgeoning medium of music video to maximum advantage, as his revolutionary videos became fixtures on MTV, which was only a year old at the time of Thriller’s release.

Thriller topped the charts for nine months (37 weeks) and remained in Billboard’s album chart for more than two years (122 weeks). Jackson won eight Grammy Awards and seven American Music Awards for Thriller. In 1985, it was proclaimed the Best Selling Album of All Time by the Guinness Book of Records. As of July 2001, Thriller has sold 26 million copies in the U.S., making it the second best- selling album in history behind the Eagles’ Greatest Hits (27 million). Worldwide, Thriller has sold 51 million copies. Beyond the numbers, how important was Jackson’s record-shattering feat? As producer Quincy Jones told Time magazine, “Black music had to play second fiddle for a long time, but its spirit is the whole motor of pop. Michael has connected with every soul in the world.”341

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In 1985, Jackson helped to topple another sales record. As the coauthor of and performer on “We Are the World” - a benefit single for the USA for Africa charity, recorded with a cast of music stars - Jackson had a big hand in what became the top-selling single up to that point in history.

Minneapolis' multi-instrumentalist Prince Nelson was Jackson's intellectual counterpart. This licentious androgyne, specializing in quasi-porno ballads, not only wrote his songs but even played all or most of the instruments. His favorite format was the concept album, not the hit single. His fusion of pop, soul and rock was driven by sheer libido. Prince basically transformed the moaning and screaming of copulation into a style of singing, a neurotic, delirious falsetto that continuously referenced sexual pleasure. If the fundamental elements remained the same throughout the decade, the emphasis shifted from the purely self-celebratory 1999 (1982) to the epic Purple Rain (1984) to the self-indulgently baroque Around the World (1985). Each album was both an erotic and a stylistic tour de force.

“A Terrible Movie, a legendary soundtrack.” Prince’s 1984 album Purple Rain broke records and broke Prince onto the international stage. The album is a mix of funk, pop, blues and rock and apparently the title track “Purple Rain” was Prince’s attempt at country rock. To capture and corner the pop market, the lyrics are a tad clearer then previous offerings from the artist, though the cheeky lyrics in “Darling Nikki” got the ball rolling on Parental Advisory Stickers! Rolling Stone ranked this No.2 in the top 100 albums of the 1980’s.342

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Other artists popular in this time period were the daring Rick James, and ballad singers Billy Ocean, Teddy Pendergrass, Anita Baker, and singer-songwriter- producer Luther Vandross.

The main changes in African American music in the 1980's and 1990's have been a diversification of funk and R&B. Essentially, two major styles are referred to - R&B, and hip hop. Both of these styles rely on past musical styles, and, of course the talent of the individuals who bring that music forth.

The Emergence of the Hip Hop Culture and Rap The concept of rap can be traced back to Africa to the word "nommo," which refers to the power of the spoken word. African griots retained substantial amounts of information, and often sang in a musical "speech-like rhythm" to give accounts of past and present events. Hip hop and its later development, rap, began to be used in New York in the mid 1970's, and achieved national, mainstream popularity in the mid 1980's. Hip hop was originally used as a term as far back as Malcolm X's day to describe the dance parties of his youth.343 Below are some of the earliest musical examples that use the concept of speaking over music:

Nineteenth century operettas used patter songs - Gilbert and Sullivan's "H.M.S. Pinafore" (1878) used patter in "When I Was a Lad I Served a Term" and the "Pirates of Penzance" (1879) used it in "The Major General Song."

"Talking records" in country music as early as the 1920's.

Louis Jordan - rhythmic speech patter in "Saturday Night Fish Fry"(1940's).

James Brown - "Say it Loud - I'm Black and I'm Proud" - 1960's.

Gil Scott Heron – early 1970’s.

The Last Poets – early 1970's.

Lovebug Starski, a radio disc jockey in the early 1970's.

Other R&B artists using rap-like monologues - Joe Tex, Millie Jackson, Isaac Hayes, Donna Summer.

Blondie's Deborah Harry sang "Rapture", a song that used rap.

Anne Lennox of the Eurythmics sang rap song "Why", early 1980's.

343 Fernando, S.H. jr. The New Beats: Exploring the Music, Culture, and Attitudes of Hip Hop. New York: Anchor Books, 1994, p. ix. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 351

Herbie Hancock - record scratching on "Rockit", 1983.

The Last Poets

On May 19, 1968 (Malcolm X's birthday) the Last Poets were officially formed, adopting the name from the work of South African Little Willie Copaseely, who declared the era to be the last age of poets before the complete takeover of guns. After a performance on a local televison program, the group was signed by jazz producer Alan Douglas, who helmed their eye-opening eponymous debut LP in 1970. A collection condemning both white oppression ("White Man's Got a God Complex") and black stasis ("Niggas Are Scared of Revolution"), The Last Poets reached the U.S. Top 10 album charts, but before the group could mount a tour, Oyewole was sentenced to 14 years in prison after being found guilty of robbery, and was replaced by percussionist Nilajah.

After the 1971 follow-up (which landed them on President Richard Nixon's Counter-Intelligence Programming lists), Hassan joined a southern-based religious sect; Jalal recruited former jazz drummer Suliaman El Hadi for 1972's Chastisement, which incorporated jazz-funk structures to create a sound the group dubbed "jazzoetry." Following the 1973 Jalal solo concept album Hustler's Convention (recorded under the Lightnin' Rod), the Last Poets issued 1974's At Last, a foray into free-form jazz. 344

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With withering attacks on everything from racists to government to the bourgeoisie, their spoken word albums preceded politically laced R&B projects such as Marvin Gaye's “What's Going On” and foreshadowed the work of hard-hitting rap groups such as Public Enemy.345

Given are some basic terms used in rap and hip hop:

Termz Cutting - Multiple turntables used to insert sections from one recording into another.

Dubbing - Changing some aspect of the original recording and inserting a new track into it. Usually, a recording would be reduced to an instrumental track (or just drums or bass and drums) and new rap vocals would be dubbed on top of the instrumental track.

Mixing - Combining small parts of various songs of different artists that have a common continuous beat.

Sampling - Taking selected sections from other recordings, duplicating and mixing those sections digitally to create a background sound for a new recording. A favorite artist to be sampled is James Brown.

Scratching - A record is manipulated by the hand by turning it clockwise and counterclockwise.

Toasting – In Jamaica, DJ's spun records in the back of pick up trucks and talked in a rhythmic patter over the records as a way to attract listeners. This was also adapted by DJ's in New York. The meaning today refers to when a rapper uses a Jamaican accent.

Hip Hop Culture – First used in music to refer to break dancing and the music for it in New York's Bronx. It soon spreat to “electric ” poppin' and tickin' moves in Fresno and L.A. (Watts, Long Beach, Crenshaw Heights). It was competitive, assertive, boasting, display of pride, initially male-oriented.

East Coast Rap - a general nickname for rap with a faster beat, deep bass line, and minimal instrumentation. Topics - general political causes for African Americans.

West Coast Rap - a general nickname for rap with a slower beat, deep bass line, and more complex instrumentation. Topics - gang related issues.

Boogie Woogie Hip Hop Wave - emphasizes fun dancing.

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Rock and roll Hip Hop Wave – The majority of these songs were boasts, with commercialized raps, some explicit lyrics.

Hard Core Hip Hop Wave (gangsta rap) - rage, message rap such as problems of the inner city; drugs, violence, survival in the city, sex, single parents, problems between gangs and police, etc. Groups: , Dr. Dre, Onyx, Geto Boyz, Snoop Doggy Dogg.

Psychedelic Rap - messages that deal with the use of drugs, especially marijuana. Groups: , Funkdoobiest, Digital Underground, and the Brand Nubians.

G Funk - Uses '70's funk samples, pushed by Dr. Dre and other artists on his Death Row Records label.

Pop Rap - mainstream dilution and sterilization of hip hop.

Christian Rap – rap with lyrics based on Christianity, including groups D Boy and DC Talk.

Hip Hop with R&B Influence - includes many groups that use rap, but not as a main diet.

Techno – originating out of Detroit, it refers to generally fast-paced electronic music that is sequenced in the studio, with a combination of funk and robotic sounds. Popular at large open air events called “.”

House Music – A natural evolution of disco; its two birth places were two of the historical clubs of disco-music, Chicago's "Warehouse" and New York's "Paradise Garage". In the mid-1980’s their resident disc-jockeys (respectively Frankie Knuckles and Larry Levan) began playing (or, better, "spinning") built around drum-machines and soul vocals. In 1986, began to incorporate rap, and became a combination of hip hop and rap, with rap style lyrics and hip hop background often confused with rap. There is dance-oriented music that often takes a given track spliced from other recordings and sets up a dance groove. Other sounds or changes are gradually added, making for long cuts of dance music, much of it studio-induced. House music also became very popular in Europe.

Early Developments of Hip Hop Between 1968 and 1970, young African Americans in the of New York would wire sound systems to lamp posts and play party music until the police would break it up. Jamaican Clive “Hercules” Campbell (Kool DJ Herc) performed as a DJ in Bronx clubs in 1975, and "re-invented" the in of New York, while another young black man of the Bronx, Theodore "Grand Wizard" Livingstone was accidentally discovering the "skratching" sound of a turntable. The technical foundations of rap and were laid by those two more or less random Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 354

events. DJ's would soon have two copies of the same record playing at the same time. They would play an instrumental part over and over by cueing the record on one turntable to a certain point, while the other record was playing.

Rap was born as an incestuous inter-cultural phenomenon of New York's poor suburbs (Harlem, Soho, Greenwich Village, Bronx, Queens, and ). It was an evolution of Jamaica's , where the rapper would record his voice over a pre-recorded base of percussions, bass and horns. The precursors of rap were disc-jockeys, or "spinners", who used the technique to comment on the song or to incite to the crowd to dance. The idea of altering the instrumental score originated from the need to provide non-stop dance tracks, but it evolved as disc-jockeys began to pronounce more pretentious slogans that became the equivalent of song lyrics, and as they learned how to operate the electronic equipment to accompany them with more syncopated beats. Campbell (himself only a DJ) employed two MCs ("masters of ceremonies", a nickname for the rappers) to introduce his sets, constituting the first "crew" of rappers (Kool Herc & the Herculoids).

Inspired by James Brown, the kids who attended Campbell's parties developed a sexy and stylized manner of dancing. Hip hop dancing became an artistic idiom on its own. The term "b-boy" had been coined in 1969 by DJ Kool Herc to refer to an acrobatic style of dance, "". This phenomenon had become so popular that "crews" had formed, notably the "Nigger Twins" (1974) and "Rock Steady" (1977), and they incorporated elements from other styles, such as Capoeira (an Afro-Brazilian dance). The "b-boys" were only interested in the instrumental break of a song, and Campbell soon learned how to build fictitious tracks out of the breaks of funk songs.

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346 DJ Kool Herc a.k.a. Kool DJ Herc

While gay discos were becoming more chic and "white", Hercules' parties remained faithful to hardcore funk music. Nearby, Asim (Kevin Donovan), leader of the Zulu Nation gang, threw his first party at the end of 1976 in the Bronx. Meanwhile, Joseph "" Sadler was holding open-air parties, and Sadler was becoming a master of techniques such as "cutting" (cutting a song on the beat), "phasing" (altering the speed of the turntable) and "back- spinning" (spinning a record counterclockwise) that enhanced the overall experience.

The "deejays" became cult figures, the modern equivalent of medieval knights, fighting duels that were based on turntable skills. In 1977, the Bronx was divided in three main spheres of influence: Bambaata in the southeast, Hercules in the west, and Grandmaster Flash in the center. They also corresponded to spheres of influences of different "gangs" - a concept that probably originated in New Orleans, where similar "gangs" competed during the Mardi Gras. The Cold Crush Brothers were the first group of MC's to emerge in the late 1970's, introducing narrative structure in rap, and were the first to MC and DJ simultaneously.

Another element of hip hop, although not a musical one, was spray-painted art, or "tagging" (the "tag" being the stylized signature of the graffiti painter). It started in Philadelphia sometimes in the 1960’s, pioneered by such legendary

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figures as Cornbread and Cool Earl (who may or may not have existed). In 1970 a particular form of graffiti began to appear on the cars of the New York subway, and the following year claimed to have interviewed the author, a teenager only identified as Taki 183 (who may or may have not existed). These pioneers may be just fantasy, because many other kids began to produce graffiti and sign them with the legendary names. (Some of these graffiti artists, such as Jean-Michel Basquiat and Keith Haring went on to become professional artists).

The first rap records were the Sugar Hill Gang's Rapper's Delight (1979) and 's Christmas (1979) and Breaks (1979). "Rapper's Delight" by the Sugarhill Gang became the first commercially released rap record and was a surprise hit, even breaking into the Pop Top 40, as well as landing at #4 on the R&B Charts. The latter tune was the first rap single certified gold.

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As the dizzy collages of , sound effects and song fragments became more daring; rappers began to focus on lyrics to match the music. Rappers began singing "messages", such as Grandmaster Flash's “Message” (1982) and Bambaataa's “Planet Rock” (1982) that established a form of underground communication between the genre's practitioners. Grandmaster Flash's "messages" were glimpses of ghetto life, fusing socio-political commentary and senseless partying. The Adventures... on the “Wheels of Steel” (1981) was one of the first singles to use samples of other people's songs (Chic, Blondie, Queen).

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The first conscious artist of rap's aural collage was Afrika Bambaataa Aasim, the Leonardo of the beatbox. For five years he experimented (facilitated by producer Arthur Baker) in mixing samples, epileptic beats, disco grooves and Kraftwerk's electronic pop. Bambaataa's heavily electronic style was coined "electro-funk" (often shortened to "electro"). Electro became a genre in its own with its arsenal of drum-machines, sequencers and synthesizers, the instruments of a new form of music (instead of guitars, bass and drums). This would later fuel development of early .

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In 1984, Marley Marl (Marlon Williams) accidentally produced the first sample of a drum-machine and began a career as producer of innovative electro-funk tracks, notably the Super Kids' “The Tragedy” (1985).

The most important innovation from the instrumental point of view was the birth of the turntable. In 1983 turntablist DST (DXT) played a solo of "skratch" on Herbie Hancock's “Rockit”. Slowly, the turntablist became as important as the guitarist in rock music. Steve "Steinski" Stein and Douglas "Double Dee" DiFranco founded the art of DJing (as a form of art) with his influential mixes Lesson One: The Payoff Mix (1983), Lesson Two: The James Brown Mix (1985), Lesson 3: The History of Hip Hop (1985).

The fusion between hip hop and the rock world was first achieved by Run-DMC, whose albums Run-DMC (1984), King of Rock (1985) and Raising Hell (1986) ran the gamut from hard-rock guitar riffs to politicized raps.

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James Todd Smith, better known as LL Cool J, sang about the splendors and the miseries of the ghetto on Radio (1985), and then proceeded to coin a hyper- realistic and hyper-egocentric hyper-fusion on the subsequent albums. He epitomized "party-rap", a compromise with the mainstream pop sensibility.

1985-86 saw a population explosion within the hip hop nation: UTFO's Roxanne Roxanne (1985), which was played by Full Force, scratcher Derek "D.ST" Howells's The Home Of Hip Hop (1985), Doug E. Fresh (Davis)'s The Show (1985) and La-Di- Da-Di (1985), the Masters Of Ceremony's Sexy (1986), Kool Moe Dee (Mohandas Dewese)'s (1986), produced by the young Teddy Riley, Lisa Lisa And Cult Jam's Lost In Emotion (1987), also played by Full Force. etc.

New York hip hop producer Marley Marl (Marlon Williams) was largely responsible for creating the sound of "rap-party" based around the new sampling techniques, a skillful combination of James Brown grooves and drum loops. His "Juice Crew" boasted the sexy (Antonio Hardy), the MC of Raw (1988), the comedian (Marcell Hall, who also got caught using illegal samples), i.e. the human beatbox of "Make the Music With Your Mouth" (1988), and street chronicler

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Kool G Rap (Nathaniel Wilson) of Streets of New York (1991), not to mention Marl's own The Symphony (1991).

Marl represented the new, professional face of hip hop: whereas the early rappers were perfectly happy to make records with a turntable and a voice (and no instruments), now the DJ had evolved into a producer, and the breakbeat had often been replaced by a band. The power was shifting from the illiterate rapper to the technology-savvy groove artist.

Other transitional albums of the hip hop culture were 's second album Escape (1984), produced by , Full Force's Full Force (1985), ' Crushin' (1987), featuring the madly comic trio of Mark "Markie Dee" Morales, Damon "Kool Rock-Ski" Wimbley and Darren "Buff" Robinson, and DJ Jazzy Jeff & The Fresh Prince's He's The DJ I'm The Rapper (1988), by Philadelphia rapper Jeff Townes and turntablist Will Smith (a master of scratching, silky beats, moody atmospheres). They moved the genre simultaneously towards pop melody (and therefore mass acceptance) and towards a celebration of gang violence (and therefore mass repudiation), a contradiction in terms that would remain inherent in the genre. Eric B. & Rakim's Paid In Full (1987), crafted by groove virtuoso Eric Barrier and roaring rhyme stylist William Griffin, was possibly the most influential album of the era, both rhythmically (Eric's James Brown samples and vocally (Rakim's fluent, almost melismatic rapping).

The "message" became much more relevant with rappers Carlton "" Ridenhour (the revolutionary voice) and William "" Drayton (its absurdist counterpart) of Public Enemy, whose agit-prop hip hop music was an explicit call to arms in the face of urban violence. Sandwiched between the galvanizing but naive Yo Bum Rush the Show (1987) and the ebullient, cataclysmic and self-indulgent (1990), their masterpiece (and hip hop's masterpiece). It Takes a Nation of Millions To Hold Us Back (1988) was a collection of powerful sermons, reminiscent of the MC5. The production team, "Bomb Squad", led by Hank Shocklee and DJ Norman "Terminator X" Rogers pushed the sonic montage of hip hop towards new delirious and violent excesses. Public Enemy opted for a less dynamic/intense but more static/hard style on Apocalypse 91: The Enemy Strikes Black (1991), a step that led to the sonic maelstrom of Muse Sick-N-Hour Mess Age (1994), which was, again, one of the most original albums of its era.

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Under the influence of Public Enemy, social commentary became more prominent and to the point on Criminal Minded (1987) and especially By All Means Necessary (1988) by Boogie Down Productions, the brainchild of rapper KRS-One (Kris Parker), Gang Starr's Step In The Arena (1990), EPMD's Strictly Business (1988), the Ultramagnetic MCs' Critical Beatbown (1988), featuring the young (but already demented) "Kool" Keith Thornton, one of the first groups to employ a sampler as an instrument (credit producer Cedric Miller), and 's One For All (1990). Philadelphia's Schoolly D (Jesse Weaver) virtually invented "gangsta rap" (a genre that would dominate the Los Angeles scene in the 1990’s) with Gangster Boogie (1984), PSK (1985) and the album Saturday Night (1987).

Rap crossed the racial divide with white rappers such as the . Licensed To Ill (1987) integrated punk-rock and hip hop into an organic whole (and was the first rap album to reach the top of the charts), and to gain some acceptance in the hip hop community, while the orgy of samples of Paul's Boutique (1989) virtually invented a new ("cut and paste") way of making music (thanks to the producing team of the Dust Brothers). Among white exploiters of the genre, 3rd Bass were perhaps the least worse, thanks to The Cactus Album (1989).

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The Beastie Boys353

Rap also crossed genders with the advent of a viable generation of female rappers, a phenomenon pioneered in Philadelphia by Lady B's To the Beat Y'All (1980) but best represented in New York by MC Lyte (Lana Moorer)'s Lyte As A Rock (1988) and by the two ladies of the "" posse: Queen Latifah (Dana Owens), with the pop-soul-rap-house fusion of All Hail The Queen (1989), and -born Monie Love (Simone Johnson), with Down To Earth (1990). The most successful female rappers were the New York trio Salt'N Pepa, with singles such as “The Show Stoppa” (1985), “Push It” (1988) and “Let's Talk about Sex” (1991).

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Hip Hop began to dominate the airwaves at the turn of the decade. New York was still leading the rap nation, with its innumerable "posses" and "crews". The best album to come out of the "Juice Crew" was Kool G Rap & DJ Polo's Wanted Dead Or Alive (1990). The "Native Tongues" posse, perhaps the most creative of them all, produced a few notable albums: 's phantasmagoric (1989), produced by "" Huston in an extravagant manner that was reminiscent of both George Clinton, Van Dyke Parks and Frank Zappa; the Jungle Brothers' second album Done By The Forces Of Nature (1989), one of the most positive and spiritual works of hip hop; and 's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm (1990) and especially their second album The Low End Theory (1991), two of the earliest attempts at jazz-hop fusion. The "Native Tongue" movement heralded the advent of a generation of intellectual, philosophical, sociological rappers that investigated the condition of the African- American soul rather than the street epics of gangsters.

De La Soul and the Jungle Brothers were emblematic of the "daisy-age sound" that upped the ante for hip hop producers. The third pillar of that movement was another New York group, Stetsasonic, consisting of three rappers and three DJs (including the young "Prince Paul" Huston), who crafted In Full Gear (1988) and

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especially Blood, Sweat & No Tears (1991). They were also the first group to emphasize live instrumentation in rap music. Stetsasonic's A.F.R.I.C.A. (1987) was also one of the first rap records to deal with Afrocentric issues. London's white rap trio Stereo MC's were also influenced by the "daisy age" movement on their Supernatural (1990).

Western (West Coast) rap (that had been born with Disco Daddy and Captain Rapp's Gigolo Rapp in 1981, mainly based in Los Angeles) slowly began to compete against Eastern rap, thanks to Tracy "Ice-T" Marrow's 6n' Da Mornin (1986), the first West-Coast single to become popular nation-wide (and a contender for the title of first "gangsta-rap" anthem); thanks to Oakland's Todd "" Shaw, who became the first rap star of the West Coast with Born to Mack (1987); thanks to Oakland's MC Hammer (Stanley Kirk Burrell), whose Let's Get It Started (1988) made hip hop appealing to an even broader audience and whose funk-tinged Please Hammer Don't Hurt 'Em (1990) became the best-selling rap album of the era; thanks to Anthony "Tone-Loc" Smith's comic Wild Thing (1989, written by Marvin "Young MC"), first top-10 pop hit for a black rapper, and Loc'd After Dark (1989), the second rap album to reach the top of the charts (after the Beastie Boys); and thanks to his mentor, London-born Young MC (Marvin Young), who matched his success with Stone Cold Rhymin' (1991).

Ice-T was by far the most gifted of this generation. He refined his violent approach to ghetto life on his confrontational second album, Power (1988), but also emancipated West Coast rap from the sound of East Coast rap on the double album Original Gangster (1991). He even bridged the world of gangsta-rap and the world of heavy-metal on Body Count (1991), a rock project.

Ice-T's weak New York counterpart was Ricky "Slick Rick" Walters, whose claim to the invention of gangsta-rap was Great Adventures (1988), an impressive example of the vulgar themes that came to be associated with the genre – homicide, homophobia, (fear/hatred of foreigners or those different from your ethnicity), misogyny (blatant disrespect toward women) and racism.

The 2 Live Crew's Is What We Are (1986) introduced the booming "" sound, based on a forceful, thumping beat; but became famous mainly for the sexually-explicit lyrics of Move Somethin' (1987), the first album to be sold in both a "clean" and a "dirty" version, and As Nasty as They Wanna Be (1989), the first rap album to be banned as obscene.

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The brief fad of "" was started and ruled by Teddy Riley's Guy, whose Guy (1988) wed hip hop and rhythm n' blues in a highly entertaining manner.

Although once perceived by the media as a passing fad, by 1992 11 rap albums had reached platinum, and 23 had gone gold. Rap and R&B together grossed over 700 million dollars in 1992. Yo MTV Raps and ' Def Comedy Jam were cited as two of the most popular programs on cable TV, while shows such as The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air, In Living Color, Martin, and The Arsenio Hall Show catered to the hip hop audience.356 Below are a few earlier films that incorporated rap:

1982 (independent film, by Charles Ahearn) 1984 Breakin' I, Breakin' II, Rappin', 1985 1991 Richochet, starring Denzil Washington 1991 New Jack City, starring Ice T 1991 Colors, starring Ice T 1991 Boyz in the Hood, Ice Cube 1992 Juice 1993 CB-4, Poetic Justice, 1994 Above the Rim, Nate Dogg, Warren G, Menace 2 Society, Fresh Disorderlies, the Fat Boys 1995 Dangerous Minds

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Hip Hop established a significantly different paradigm of music-making. Shifting the emphasis from the melody to the rhythm was not simply an extension of what funk music had already done: it was a “Copernican” revolution that changed the very meaning of the word "song.” The elegant melody of pop music was a negation of reality, whereas the intricate rhythms of hip hop music were an affirmation of reality. Where melodic songs were fundamentally meant to offer a respite from the real world, a hip hop song was a way to perform a total immersion into it. Pop music was about being a victim or a protagonist, while hip hop music was about being a witness. Pop music was about making storytelling memorable and descriptive, while hip hop music was about making storytelling as coldly factual as news reporting. The sonic montage made possible by sampling techniques added a further dimension. Pop conceived art as order; hip hop conceived art as chaos. As electronic devices replaced the traditional instruments, composition became a branch of engineering, and engineering became a way to reflect the chaos of the (urban) environment.

Hip Hop of the 1990’s Generally speaking, the rule for hip hop music of the 1990’s was that behind every successful rap act there was a producer. Rap music was born as a "do-it-yourself" art in which the "message" was more important than the music. During the 1990’s, interest in the lyrics declined rapidly, while interest in the that those lyrics roamed increased exponentially. The rapping itself became less clownish, less stereotyped, less macho, and much more psychological and subtle. In fact, rappers often crossed over much more into singing. Hip Hop music became sophisticated, and wed with jazz, soul and pop. Instrumental hip hop became a genre of its own, and one of the most experimental outside of classical music. Rap has added a variety of new terms or lingo that applies specifically to the genre, and, rap also changed fashions (construction boots, boxers, African beads, hats, hooded shirts). Groups such as Public Enemy and Run DMC even got their own line of clothing. Certainly the role of MTV, VHI, BET (and other TV stations) have helped to keep rap popular with their many shows featuring hip hop.

Jazz Rap (Acid Jazz/Jazz Hop) Some consider Miles Davis' Album On The Corner (1972) the precursor of hip hop. In the 1990’s the Last Poet, a Harlem-based trio of former jail convicts converted to Islam (led by ), were using "spiel" (as rap was called in those days) over a jazz background. Their political sermons were inspired by Malcom X and relied on the arrangements of jazz producer Alan Douglas on The Last Poets (1970), which became a hit, and developed into "jazzoetry" on the album Chastisement (1972).

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Jazz-hop was pioneered by: Grandmaster Flash's of jazz master Roy Ayers; scratcher Derek "D.ST" Howells's collaboration with jazz pianist Herbie Hancock, Rockit (1983); the Jungle Brothers' Straight Out the Jungle (1988), possibly the first example of full-fledged jazz-hop fusion. In 1989, Quincy Jones released , featuring three songs recorded with rappers. On Jazz Corner of the World, rappers Kool Moe Dee and Big Daddy Kane collaborated with jazz greats James Moody, Miles Davis, George Benson, Sarah Vaughan, Dizzy Gillespie, and Ella Fitzgerald. There was And Now The Legacy Begins (1991), the eclectic multi-stylistic manifesto of the Toronto-based duo Dream Warriors (with the prophetic My Definition of a Boombastic Jazz Style); A Tribe Called Quest's The Low End Theory (1991), which featured guest musician Ron Carter; and Chuck D Ridenbour's Big-band Tribute to Charlie Mingus (1992). Jazz returned the favor with post-bop saxophonist Greg Osby's 3D Lifestyles (1993), with Miles Davis' very last recording, Doo-Bop (1992), and with the "acid-jazz" scene of San Francisco (Broun Fellinis, Alphabet Soup).

Besides being one of the first groups to follow in the footsteps of Public Enemy's militant hip hop, Gang Starr rapper Keith "Guru" Elam and producer Christopher "DJ Premier" Martin, pioneered the mature exploitation of jazz on Step In The Arena (1990) and Daily Operation (1992), and then ventured beyond jazz-hop on Moment of Truth (1998). Martin's extensive use of jazz sampling and percussion loops revolutionized the way "raps" ought to be orchestrated.

Jazz-hop became the sensation of 1993 with Guru's own Jazzmatazz Volume 1 (1993), US3's Hand on the Torch (1993), for which British producer Geoff Wilkinson mined the Blue Note catalog, the Digable Planets' Reachin' (1993), from Boston, Pharcyde's dadaistic, carnivalesque Bizarre Ride II the Pharcyde (1993), from Los Angeles, and Plantation Lullabies (1993) by Washington's Me'Shell Ndege' Ocello (Mary Johnson). The trend was amplified in the following years by albums such as One Step Ahead of the Spider (1994), the third album by Dallas' white rapper Mark Griffin, better known as MC900 Ft Jesus the Fun Lovin' Criminals' Come Find Yourself (1996).

Philadelphia's group Roots approached jazz not via samples but through live instrumentation, led by the rhythm section of drummer Ahmir-Khalib "?uestlove" Thompson and bassist Leon "Hub" Hubbard and by keyboardist Scott Storch, on Do You Want More (1995). A quantum jump in production made Phrenology (2002) a case in point for the marriage of technology, composition and performance, transforming hip hop music into avant-garde architecture.

The horizon further expanded with Chicago's Common Sense (Lonnie Rashied Lynn), who evolved from the mellow jazz-hop of Resurrection (1994) to Electric Circus Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 369

(2003), an experiment reminiscent of psychedelic and progressive-rock, and with New York's Dante "" Smith, who reacted to gangsta-rap by bringing back the serious-minded philosophy of the "Native Tongues" posse while at the same time accommodating rock, soul and funk on the phantasmagoric Black on Both Sides (1999). Basically, hip hop music had fragmented along three seismic faults of rebellion: one could vent Negro anger as a gangsta, as an Afro-nationalist militant or... by playing jazz music.

Urban Soul "Urban" was the nickname grafted to the smooth and sophisticated rhythm n' blues ballads of the late 1980’s, best personified by Janet Jackson (Michael's sister) and . Jackson debuted with Control (1986), crafted by producers Jimmy Jam (James Harris) and Terry Lewis that offered urban soul music tinged with hip hop beats to propel her sensual whisper. Houston exploded with Saving All My Love (1985), How Will I Know (1985), Greatest Love Of All (1985), I Wanna Dance With Somebody (1987), Didn't We Almost Have It All (1987), One Moment In Time (1988).

Urban soul came to dominate pop music as well, thanks to the stars of 's singer (from Los Angeles), (also from the Los Angeles area) and (born Natalie McIntyre in Ohio and based in Los Angeles), revealed by the moribund growl of I Try (1999), a rousing ballad composed with keyboardist Jeremy Ruzumna, bassist David Wilder and guitarist Jinsoo Lim. The fact that black female artists such as Whitney Houston and Janet Jackson came to dominate the charts and set new sales records was, if nothing else, proof that black artists and female artists had made tremendous progress in being accepted by a world that used to worship only male white idols such as the Beatles and Elvis Presley.

Urban soul became a much more rhythmic affair in 1988, after Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis produced Janet Jackson's Control (1986), Antonio "L.A." Reid and Kenneth "" Edmonds produced the Pebbles' Pebbles and after Teddy Riley produced Keith Sweat's Make It Last Forever. Finally, Teddy Riley's own group Guy and Bobby Brown's second album, Don't Be Cruel (1988), also produced by L.A. Reid and Babyface, fused urban soul with hip hop to create "new jack swing". Bobby Brown had been a member of teenage-group New Edition, whose biggest hit, Cool It Now (1984), was probably the first to use rapping in a pop-soul context. Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis topped everybody else with Janet Jackson's second album, Rhythm Nation 1814 (1989). Later, the style was perfected by producer Sean "Puffy" Combs on Mary J. Blige's What's the 411? (1992), and also by producers/writers Tim "" Mosley and Melissa "Missy" Elliott on teen-idol Aaliyah Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 370

(Haughton’s) One in a Million (1996). Timbaland pioneered the technique of custom- creating the beat via digital keyboards instead of adding a break-beat to a sample.

The most successful of the new jack swing artists were Philadelphia's Boyz II Men, who established their "hip-wop" style (new jack swing plus four-part harmonies a la doo-wop) with (1991), produced by Michael Bivins of the New Edition, and churned out colossal hits such as the Babyface-penned End of the Road (1992), that broke a record held by Elvis Presley since 1956, I'll Make Love to You (1994), another Babyface creation (which even beat the previous record), On Bended Knee (1994), produced by Jimmy Jam & Terry Lewis (a hit which beat their own record), and One Sweet Day (1995), a duet with Mariah Carey (which, again, broke their own previous record). The era of new jack swing ended with Usher (Raymond)'s My Way (1997), produced by Jermaine Dupri, Babyface and Sean "Puffy" Combs, and by multi-instrumentalist Robert "R" Kelly, whose double album R (1998) marked a revival of classic soul music. The spiritual message and the Caribbean-pop-rap fusion of London-born Des'ree Weekes came to focus on I Ain't Movin' (1994).

Assembled in 1988 by Los Angeles writers/producers Denzil Foster and Thomas McElroy (both former Club Nouveau), the female quartet En rejuvenated the concept of the "" for the video age with their second album Funky Divas (1992). However, the new vanguard of female rhythm and blues groups was represented by TLC, the brainchild of producer , debuting with Ooooooohhh... (1992). They in turn inspired Houston's Destiny's Child (featuring the rising star of Beyonce Knowles), who came to dominate the charts at the turn of the century. The Minneapolis sextet Mint Condition was the most competent combo of mainstream rhythm n' blues throughout the 1990’s, from Breakin' My Heart (1991) to What Kind of Man Would I Be (1996).

A revival of soul music, updated to the technology of the hip hop era, was heralded by D'Angelo's Brown Sugar (1995), Maxwell's Urban Hang Suite (1996), a sumptuous Marvin Gaye-style romantic concept album, and Erykah Badu's Baduizm (1997). In fact, it had been predated by, yet again, the influential production duo of L.A. Reid and Babyface, for example on Toni Braxton's two massive bestsellers, Toni Braxton (1993) and Secrets (1996), the latter containing one of the most famous ballads of all times (“Un-break My Heart”, composed by Diane Warren).

Outkast's Andre 3000 (Benjamin) rediscovered Prince's erotic funk-soul music on The Love Below (2003). The Fugees' vocalist delivered in a versatile, booming voice the elegant and sincere allegories of The Miseducation Of (1998), across a broad stylistic range. Virginia's singer-rapper-songwriter Melissa "Missy" Elliott and Virginia's producer Tim "Timbaland" Mosley (members of the hip hop Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 371

production crew "Da Bassment") proved to be a lethal combination: Elliott's sultry vocals, gymnastic raps and female-centric lyrics coupled with Timbaland's stuttering, digital grooves created a mood that was simultaneously sensitive, confrontational, hedonistic, stark and futuristic on Supa Dupa Fly (1997). The duo veered towards a format that mixed freely intimate ballads, dance floor tracks and angry raps on So Addictive (2001).

At the turn of the century, Rogers inherited the crown of Queen Latifah and Missy Elliott with her feminist-tinged fusion of hip hop and rhythm and blues on Kaleidoscope (1999), aggressively produced by The Neptunes (Chad Hugo and Pharrell Williams). Missouri's laid-back pop-rapper Nelly (Cornell Haynes) became the genre's biggest seller with Country Grammar (2000), Nellyville (2002) and the double album Sweatsuit (2004). Songwriter and pianist Alicia "Keys" Cook dramatically increased the level of musicianship with her Songs in A Minor (2001).

This was the age of superproducers The Neptunes (Chad Hugo and Pharrell Williams) and Tim "Timbaland" Mosley, both based in Virginia Beach, both masters of the new digital technology based on the "Pro Tools" software introduced in 1991. The former were emblematic of the cold and thin sound of the digital age (as opposed to the warm and thick sound of classic pop, soul and rock music), while the latter introduced the sound of drum n'bass into pop and soul music. Both owed a lot to Teddy Riley, the Harlem producer who had made Virginia Beach the Mecca of the new sound in the first place, when he opened his "Future Recording Studios" there in 1991.

East Coast Rap The most significant event of the early 1990’s was probably the advent of Wu-Tang Clan, a loose affiliation of rappers, including Gary "Genius/GZA" Grice, Russell "Ol' Dirty Bastard" Jones, Clifford "Method Man" Smith and Dennis "Ghostface Killah" Coles, "conducted" (if the rap equivalent of a classical conductor exists) by Robert "RZA" Diggs, the musical genius behind Enter the Wu-Tang (1993), a diligent tribute to old-school rap. This "clan" (not "gang") spun off a number of successful solo careers, but its sound was hardly innovative. Ol' Dirty Bastard's Return to the 36 Chambers (1995), Method Man's Tical (1994), Raekwon's Only Built 4 Cuban Linx (1995) and GZA/Genius' Liquid Swords (1995), the most dramatic and cinematic of the bunch, were produced by RZA.

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The Wu-Tang Clan in 2008357

They were one of the few East Coast acts that stood up to the past standards of the city's hip hop. A number of New Jersey acts, in particular, cast a doubt on the future of hip hop: the duo P.M. Dawn, with Of the Heart of the Soul of the Cross (1991), Naughty By Nature, with Naughty By Nature (1991), Kris Kross (the pre- puberal duo of Chris "Daddy Mack" Smith and Chris "Mack Daddy" Kelly), produced by teenager Jermaine Dupri, with the disco energy of Totally Krossed Out (1992), and the trio of the Lords of the Underground, with Here Come the Lords (1993), produced by Marley Marl. Washington multi-instrumentalist Basehead (Michael Ivey), came out with Plays With Toys (1992), which was also crossing over into pop and soul territory. Trevor "" Smith's The Coming (1996) was as bizarre as accessible (basically an extension of the absurdist style of Public Enemy's William "Flavor Flav" Drayton). The nonsensical dialectics of Das Efx (Andre "Dre" Weston and Willie "Skoob" Hines) on Dead Serious (1992) was only functional to creating novelty acts.

Main Source's Breaking Atoms (1991), Poor Righteous Teachers' second album Pure Poverty (1991), permeated by Islamic philosophy, Mecca and the Soul Brother (1992) by producer Pete Rock (Phillips) & rapper C.L. Smooth (Corey Penn), Reggie "" Noble's Whut? Thee Album (1992), (1993) by short-lived

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trio , and New Kingdom's tribal-psychedelic Heavy Load (1993) were among the few albums that dared to experiment. East Coast hip hop was losing to the West Coast. If nothing else, Nasir "Nas" Jones' (1994) and Kendrick "Jeru the Damaja" Davis's The Sun Rises in the East (1994) briefly brought back party-rap's original sound.

New York's duo Organized Konfusion (Larry "Prince Poetry" Bakersfield and Troy "Pharoahe Monch" Jammerson) refined the dramatic/poetic skills of rap music, from the ghetto vignettes of Organized Konfusion (1991) to the psychological hip hopera The Equinox (1997). Philadelphia's The Goats, led by Oatie Kato (Maxx Stoyanoff-Williams), orchestrated the "Hip Hopera" Tricks of the Shade (1992), a concept album built around the evils of the American way of life, with samples AND a live band, deep grooves and a canvas of jazz, funk and rock.

"Prince Paul" Huston, the producer of De La Soul's 3 Feet High and Rising and the equally psychedelic My Field Trip To Planet 9 (1993) by Justin Warfield, penned Gravediggaz's gothic 6 Feet Deep (1994) with Wu-Tang Chan's Robert "RZA" Diggs, and the solo albums Psychoanalysis: What Is It? (1997) and especially the concept album A Prince Among Thieves (1999). Alien to the street culture of much hip hop, New York's J-Live (Justice Allah) was one of the MC’s who turned rhymed storytelling into a veritable art, both on The Best Part (1996), released five years after being recorded, and All Of The Above (2002).

Gangsta Rap (West Coast) On the West Coast, "gangsta-rap" was the dominant theme. Schoolly D had invented it in 1984, but, starting with Ice-T in 1986, it was in Los Angeles that the form found its natural milieu. In 1992, when racial riots erupted (following the police beating of a black gangster), Los Angeles was said to have 66 gangs of teenagers, mostly black, with daily shootings among them. They reached a temporary truce in April. It is not a coincidence that "gangsta rap" became a national phenomenon in the following twelve months. Gangsta-rap was not so much about gangster lives as about a metaphorical, solemn, doom-laden recreation of the noir/thriller atmosphere of the urban drug culture. It was more than a mere depiction of their lives, just like psychedelic music had been more than a mere reproduction of the hallucinogenic experience. Gangsta rap was about the mythology and the metaphysics of the gang life, with sexual and criminal overtones. As Greg Kot wrote, "The gangster rappers depict a world in which gangbangers and crack-heads fester in a cesspool of misogyny, homophobia and racism.” Invariably dismissing women as teasers or sluts, these rappers indirectly revealed the sordid and desperate conditions of the women of the ghettos. Their justification was that they were not promoting that kind of violence, but merely documenting it. Gangsta- rap was a documentary of daily life in the ghetto. Furthermore, the arrogance of Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 374

these self-appointed super-heroes was often accompanied by a fatalistic mood: gangsta-rap was not about immortality, albeit about survival.

N.W.A., or "Niggaz With Attitude", formalized "gangsta-rap" with the album Straight Outta Compton (1988).

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Two of its former members, O'Shea "Ice Cube" Jackson with AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted (1990), a total immersion in a nightmarish atmosphere, and Andre "Dr Dre" Young with (1992), featuring rapper Calvin "Snoop Doggy Dogg" Broadus, gave it its masterpieces. The latter, heavily influenced by George Clinton's psychedelic funk, also coined a subgenre called "G Funk". Houston's Geto Boys, featuring young rapper Brad "Scarface" Jordan, were one of the first crews from the South to become known nation-wide, thanks to the terrifying gangsta-rap of their second album Geto Boys (1990).

Gangsta-rap became mainstream via albums such as Doggystyle (1993) by Los Angeles native Calvin Broadus, better known as Snoop Doggy Dogg, produced by Dr. Dre, and Me Against The World (1995), the third album from Oakland's 2Pac (a.k.a. Tupac Shakur, born Lesane Parish Crooks), produced by Sam Bostic, which was

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followed by All Eyez on Me (1996), the first double album of hip hop music. As gangsta-rap generated sales, rappers found it almost obligatory to the usual litany of hard-boiled tales of drugs, sex and murder.

One of the main sources of creativity for the Los Angeles scene was the Freestyle Fellowship crew, responsible for the elaborate collages of To Whom It May Concern (1991) and especially Inner City Griots (1993). The second album, A Book Of Human Language (1998) by Aceyalone, a founding member of the "Freestyle Fellowship" crew, was lavishly arranged by Matthew "Mumbles" Fowler.

Los Angeles was also the birthplace of , which debuted with Escape From Havana (1990) by Cuban-born (Sergio Reyes) and Hispanic Causing Panic (1991) by Kid (Arturo Molina). Kid Frost's La Raza (1990) and Mellow Man Ace's Mentirosa (1990) became the reference standards for all subsequent Latin rappers. The artistic peak of West Coast rap was probably reached by a semi-Latino bilingual group, Cypress Hill, the project of producer Lawrence "Muggs" Muggerud and rapper Louis "B Real" , with their hyper- depressed trilogy of Cypress Hill (1992), Black Sunday (1993) and Temples of Boom (1995). They’re also known for their pro-drug, psychedelic messages. The large Latino collective Ozomatli offered ebullient salsa-funk-rap on Ozomatli (1998), featuring turntablist Cut Chemist (Lucas MacFadden).

Oakland was the headquarters of most black rappers from the San Francisco Bay Area. The main acts were the crew Digital Underground, the brainchild of Greg "Shock G" Jacobs and the main hip hop purveyors of George Clinton's eccentric "funkadelia", notably on Sex Packets (1990); and rapper Del tha Funkee Homosapien (Teren Delvon Jones), also inspired by the P-funk aesthetics on I Wish My Brother George Was Here (1991). The Mystic Journeymen, formed by rappers Pushin' Suckas' Consciousness (PSC) and Vision The Brotha From Anotha Planet (BFAP), were important not so much for their 4001: The Stolen Legacy (1995), but as founders of the Oakland collective "Living Legends.” San Francisco produced some of the most virulent agit-prop rap of all times: the Beatnigs, with Beatnigs (1988), Consolidated, with The Myth Of Rock (1990), and the Disposable Heroes Of Hiphoprisy, with Hypocrisy Is The Greatest Luxury (1992).

Gangsta-rap reached the East Coast with Onix's Bacdafucup (1992) and The Notorious B.I.G. (Christopher "Biggie Smalls" Wallace)'s Ready to Die (1994), produced by Sean "Puffy" Combs and others. Fat Joe (Joseph Cartagena), the first major Latino rapper from the Bronx, also embraced the gangsta-rap aesthetic, notably on his second album Jealous One's Envy (1995). Fat Joe was the most notorious member of New York's rap collective D.I.T.C. (Diggin' in the Crates), formed by Joe "DJ Diamond D" Kirkland and first tested on Diamond D's Stunts, Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 376

Blunts & Hip Hop (1992). The other notable member, Lamont "Big L" Coleman (shot to death in 1999), released perhaps the best of their albums, Lifestylez Ov Da Poor & Dangerous (1995), produced by Anthony "Buckwild" Best.

Progressive Rap Progressive rap of the kind pioneered by Public Enemy thrived with works such as Arrested Development’s 3 Years 5 Months and 2 Days In The Life (1998), the product of Atlanta-based rapper Todd "Speech" Thomas and disc-jockey Timothy "Headliner" Barnwell. Arrested Development had the Jamaican reggae look, emphasizing being in touch with African heritage.

The title refers to the amount of time it took the idealistic Atlanta hip-hop group Arrested Development to find a willing to issue their first effort. That there were few executives who believed in the group's life-affirming, socially aware messages is dismaying, especially considering this hit their desks before gangsta rap broke big. Even more incredible is the way rapper Speech and his counterparts handled the rejection: They pressed on, taking in feedback but retaining the basic ideology. Before anybody else did, they believed in this music. The group's persistence was rewarded: On the strength of its searching single "Tennessee" and several follow-ups, Arrested Development became a sensation. The album sold over four million copies and brought the group two Grammys including, in a first for hip-hop, Best New Artist.359

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Other examples of progressive rap are Movement Ex's Movement Ex (1990), a concentrate of stereotyped conspiracy theories from Los Angeles; Oscar "Paris" Jackson's second album Sleeping With the Enemy (1992), from the Bay Area; Public Enemy associate Sister Souljah (Lisa Williamson)'s 360 Degrees of Power (1992); Brand Nubian's One For All (1990); X-Clan's To the East Blackwards (1990) from New York, KMD's Mr Hood (1991), featuring rapper Daniel "Zen Love" Dumile (also known as MF Doom), and Return Of The (1993) by former Boogie Down Productions mastermind KRS-One (Lawrence Krisna Parker). These groups harked back to the radical, militant, Afro-nationalist ideology of the Black Panthers and the Nation of Islam. They basically represented the "positive" alternative to gangsta-rap: instead of advocating rape and murder, they confronted issues of both local and global politics. Even feminism found its hip hop voice: Yolanda "Yo-Yo" Whitaker, who debuted with Make Way for the Motherlode (1991) and founded the "Intelligent Black Woman's Coalition" to promote self-esteem among women. This subgenre reached a fanatical peak with Steal This Album (1998) by Oakland's duo The Coup, which reads like Mao's "Red Book" or a Noam Chomsky pamphlet.

By the mid 1990’s, hip hop had dramatically evolved from an art of "messages" that were spoken in a conversational tone over an elementary rhythmic base to an art of cadenced speech in an emphatic and melodramatic tone over an intricate rhythmic collage. Regardless of the "message" that was now being broadcast, the sense of black self-affirmation had moved to the forefront. The main continuity with the original form of Grandmaster Flash was in the "urban" setting of the music: except for free-jazz, no other form of black music had been so viscerally tied to the urban environment.

During the 1990’s, hip hop spread outside of its traditional bases (New York and Los Angeles), reaching the far corners of the globe. Acid-rap, a morbid style related to Gravediggaz's horrocore, was coined by Detroit's rapper and producer (Rashaam Smith), both on his solo album Boomin' Words From Hell (1990), recorded when he was 15, and on the harsh and disturbing Life After Death (1992), credited to his group NATAS ("Satan" spelled backwards).

Southernplayalisticadillacmuzik (1994) by Atlanta's , the duo of Andre "Dre" Benjamin and Antwan "Big Boi" Patton, was representative of the rise of , with its emphasis on soul melodies and pop arrangements. Outkast turned hip hop into a new form of space funkadelia on their sumptuous kaleidoscopes of aural ecstasy, Aquemini (1998) and Stankonia (2000). Another product of the Atlanta school was Goodie Mob's Soul Food (1995), while assembled the No Limit posse in New Orleans.

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Pre-Life Crisis (1995) by Nashville's rapper, multi-instrumentalist and producer (Dwight Farrell) was the first rap album to feature all live instruments. New Orleans's Master P (Percy Miller) was the leading entrepreneur of unadulterated gangsta-rap. He turned it into the hip hop equivalent of a serial show, with releases being manufactured according to Master P's script at his studios by a crew of producers. His own albums Ice Cream Man (1996) and Ghetto D (1997) were the ultimate stereotypes of the genre. In 1998, his musical empire had six albums in the Top-100 charts.

Atlanta's producer Jonathan "" Smith and his East Side Boyz coined a fusion of hip hop and synth-pop called "crunk", from the title of his debut, Get Crunk Who U Wit (1996). The first star of East Coast's Latino rap was Christopher "Big Punisher" Rios, a second-generation Puertorican of New York who died of a heart attack shortly after climbing the charts with Capital Punishment (1998). In 1996 two rap singles reached the #1 spot in the pop charts, but in the same year the Bay Area's Tupac Shakur/2Pac and (a few months later) The Notorious B.I.G. were murdered, two events that highlighted the violence inherent in the genre and in the industry.

A brief commercial fad was the opulent, or "jiggy", style served by producer Sean "Puffy" Combs on his own No Way Out (1997), credited to Puff Daddy, and on Money Power & Respect (1998) by the rap trio LOX. Whether it was a female response to gangsta-rap or a reaction to the new teenage idols, female rappers stepped up to the crude vocabulary of the men: New York's Kimberly "Lil' Kim" Jones, with Hard Core (1996), Philadelphia's Eve Jihan Jeffers, with Let There Be Eve (1999), Chicago's Shawntae "Da Brat" Harris, the first female rapper ever to score platinum with Funkdafied (1994), produced by Jermaine Dupri, and Miami's "Trina" (Katrina Laverne Taylor), with Da Baddest Bitch (2000), were representative of this raunch, aggressive, obscene, materialist, vulgar and profane tone. Also, there was BWP, Bitches With Power, who came out with explicit lyrics in such tunes as No Means No.

In the second half of the decade, hip hop artists became more conscious of the essence of hip hop: it's the process, not the structure that makes a song a hip hop song. It’s a process of deconstruction, and can be applied to just about anything that has ever been recorded. The new awareness in the process resulted in a new awareness of the importance of sampling. The role of the sampling device in transforming both the sampled and the recipient material became more and more obvious to a generation of post-Malcom X African-Americans who, politically speaking, had been raised to challenge and transform stereotypes. Hip hop artists rediscovered live instruments, whose warm and humane sound linked back to the rural roots of hip hop's urban African-Americans. The metamorphosis of hip hop Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 379

was also due to its own commercial success, which removed it from the streets and moved it to the much more sophisticated lifestyle of Beverly Hills villas and Manhattan high-rise condos.

Sophisticated Hip Hop The "sophisticated" age of hip hop can be made to start with the Fugees, a trio from New Jersey (Lauryn Hill, Prakazrel "Pras" Michel, Wyclef "Clef" Jean) whose The Score (1996) fused hip hop with jazz, rhythm n’ blues and reggae. Even more sophisticated was 's first solo project, The Carnival (1997), a virtual tour of the black world, from Cuba to New Orleans to Jamaica to Africa, boasting eccentric arrangements.

Jay-Z (Shawn Carter), the most commercially successful hip hop artist of the era, epitomized the state of the art, from the gangsta-rap album Reasonable Doubt (1996) to the eclectic double album The Blueprint: The Gift & the Curse (2002), produced by . New York rap was also resurrected by the success of Earl "DMX" Simmons' It's Dark and Hell Is Hot (1997). Los Angeles' trio Abstract Tribe Unique offered a lyrical blend of soul and jazz on Mood Pieces (1998). Ditto for Philadelphia-born Bahamadia (Antonia Reed), whose Kollage (1996) was a smooth, laid-back exercise in recasting the soul-jazz ballad into the context of rap music. Chicago's hip hop duo, All Natural (rapper David "Capital D" Kelly and DJ Tony "Tone B Nimble" Fields) members of the "Family Tree" posse, offered passionate raps on No Additives No Preservatives (1998).

At the turn of the century New York unleashed the creative geniuses of the AntiPop Consortium, whose Tragic Epilogue (2000) created a new genre ("digital hip hop"?) by wedding rap with the new aesthetics of "glitch" music, and of Ian Bavitz, alias , whose third album Float (2000) overflows with eccentric arrangements and haunting textures. Sensational delivered nightmarish, stoned, warped, non-linear rapping over lo-fi beats on Loaded With Power (1997).

New York-based spoken-word artist and hip hop producer Mike Ladd was more interested in sculpting a musical background to his poetry than in beats and rhymes on Easy Listening 4 Armageddon (1997) and especially Welcome to the Afterfuture (1999). The most significant stylistic revolution of New York rap came with Dalek, the project of rapper Will Brooks and producer Alap "Oktopus" Momin. The five lengthy songs of Negro Necro Nekros (1998) and the electronic ethnic ambient noise hodgepodges of From Filthy Tongue of Gods and Griots (2002) delivered a baroque psychedelic version of Public Enemy's creative chaos. Dalek thrived halfway between the neurotic and the transcendental, the same way that did in the late 1970’s. Absence (2005) was explosive; but this was barely hip hop at all. It was just layers of sounds and noises. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 380

Instrumental Hip Hop Crucial for the development of an atmospheric pseudo-dance genre was instrumental hip hop, largely legitimized by a Los Angeles native resident in London, DJ Shadow, born Josh Davis. A legendary turntablist, Davis used prominent bass lines and scratches to detonate his extended singles Entropy (1993) and In/Flux (1993), and basically bridged classical music and hip hop on elaborate, multi-part compositions such as What Does Your Soul Look Like (1995). Endtroducing (1996) was possibly the first respectable album of all-instrumental hip hop, entirely composed on the sampler but nonetheless lushly orchestrated.

The dub-tinged of New York's Skiz "Spectre" Fernando were best deployed on the imposing gothic, post-apocalyptic trilogy of The Illness (1995), The Second Coming (1997) and The End (1999), each of them the hip hop equivalent of a William Blake poem. With DJ Shadow and Spectre, instrumental, sample-based hip hop became a genre of its own. Other instigators were the Japanese DJ DJ Krush, whose jazzy style shone on Strictly Turntablised (1994) and Ki-Oku (1998), featuring trumpeter Toshinori Kondo; and Herbalizer, London-based disc-jockeys Jake Wherry and Ollie "Teeba" Trattles, whose most daring experiment was Very Mercenary (1999).

San Francisco-based disc-jockey and virtuoso of the mixing board Dan "the Automator" Nakamura sculpted Dr Octagon (1995), a collaboration with rapper and turntablist Richard "Q-Bert" Quitevis, Handsome Boy Modeling School's So How's Your Girl (1999), with Prince Paul, and the science-fiction concept album Deltron 3030 (2000), with rapper Del Tha Funkee Homosapien and turntablist .

DJ Shadow also helped create a new artistic figure: the turntablist. As more and more genres adopted the turntable as an instrument, it was inevitable that "virtuosi" began to appear. Atlanta's DJ Faust was first to record an all-scratching album, Man Or Myth (1998). While he never realized a significant record, drum n' bass specialist DJ Craze (Nicaraguan-born Arith Delgado) stunned the crowds of Miami with his acrobatic routines at the end of the decade.

New York's quartet of turntablists X-Ecutioners, featuring turntablists Robert "Swift" Aguilar and Anthony "Roc Raida" Williams, marked a nostalgic return to the era of virtuoso scratching with the elaborate performances of X-Pressions (1997), while 's solo albums Soulful Fruit (1997) and the jazz tour de force of The Ablist (1999) were creating a new place in music for the technique.

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The most influential DJ collective of all times, Invisibl Skratch Piklz, consisted of turntablists from the San Francisco Bay Area and the Sacramento area of Latino and Philipino descent: Richard "Q-Bert" Quitevis, who also released the sci-fi concept album Wave Twisters (1998), "Mixmaster" Mike Schwartz, who also released Anti-Theft Device (1998) with producer Naut Humon (of Rhythm And Noise), -native Dave "D-Styles" Cuasito of the "Beat Junkies" crew, who debuted solo with Phantazmagorea (2002), a collection of songs composed entirely from scratching, Ritche "Yogafrog" Desuasido, "Mixmaster Mike" Schwartz, Jon "Shortkut Cruz, Lou "DJ Disk" Quintanilla, etc. Starting with Invasion of the Octopus People (1996), this collective of scratch virtuosi developed a separate art of DJ-ing.

Live Human, a San Francisco-based trio led by turntablist Carlos "DJ Quest" Aguiler, played sophisticated jams and adopted a technique of live sampling to continuously reinvent their compositions during live performances. The improvised music of Live Human Featuring DJ Quest (1997) bridged the gap between hip hop and jazz better than any fusion or crossover project. Canadian turntablist Kid Koala (Eric San), a spiritual disciple of Coldcut's sound collages, downplayed his virtuoso show on Carpal Tunnel Syndrome (2000) with an irreverent anarchic cartoonish humor.

Jason "DJ Logic" Kibler contributed to redefine the turntablist as a jazz improviser on Project Logic (1999) and especially Anomaly (2001). DJ Logic seamlessly integrated the noise of his turntable with the instruments of his jazz combo (flute, saxophone, organ, violin, organ, and trumpet). Other notable albums of abstract instrumental hip hop included: Peanut Butter Breaks (1994), by San Jose-based DJ Chris "" Manak, Soulmates (2000), by Los Angeles' Elvin "Nobody" Estela, One Three (2001), by Michigan's Tadd "Dabrye" Mullinix, Neutrino (2004), by Japanese duo Neutrino (Atsuhiro Murakami and Hideki Kuroda), etc.

In Los Angeles, 's white producer (Alfred Weisberg-Roberts) painted the disjointed murals of Invention (2002), mixing hip hop beats, sci-fi electronica and orchestral kitsch; an art that he refined until culminating in the elegant retro parade of Exquisite Corpse (2005), where the samples of orchestral music of the 1930’s came to constitute the musical equivalent of a collective stream of consciousness.

In New York, a number of DJ’s aimed for a hip hop that could transcend hip hop, that is, for a new (ambient, psychological, free-form) form for art founded on the marriage of poetry and sound. Ohio-born DJ Boom Bip (Bryan Hollon), a self- described "anti-DJ", well impersonated the sound sculptor and collage assembler of Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 382

the new wave of hip hop with the mind-boggling exercise in hip hop counterpoint of Seed to Sun (2002).

White Rap Initially, white musicians didn't quite get the whole point of rapping. For example, 's Whitey Ford Sings The Blues (1998) merely used hip hop as a rhythmic background for their folk-style meditations. On their debut album G. Love & Special Sauce (1994), Philadelphia's G. Love & Special Sauce, led by guitarist and vocalist Garrett Dutton, bridged vintage talking blues and contemporary rap.

Blaxploitation of rap began in earnest with the most celebrated white rapper of the era, Marshall Mathers, a.k.a. Eminem, whose The Slim Shady (1999) and The Marshall Mathers LP (2000) unleashed angry rants at American society and resonated with the masses of disaffected white kids from the suburbia. The whole model of the "singer songwriter" was revolutionized by the advent of white rappers such as Eminem: they introduced not only the syncopated rhyming but also the brutal subjects of rap music to an audience of middle-class white kids.

One of the most influential figures at the turn of the millennium was white producer El-P, a.k.a. El Producto, born Jaime Meline in New York. He founded , whose Funcrusher Plus (1997) and especially the instrumental Little Johnny From The Hospital (1999) were the most were the most bombastic, ebullient and explosive works of the time, and crafted the soundscape of 's The Cold Vein (2001), a project risen from the ashes of Company Flow ( and Vordul Megilah), before releasing his first solo album, the neurotic sci-fi concept (2002). Throughout his work, EL-P harked back to the anthemic, ebullient and explosive mix of Public Enemy. El-P's influence was visible on Rjyan "Cex" Kidwell's fusion of hip hop, pop and avant-garde electronics on Being Ridden (2003). , a trio of white hip hop artists from the Oakland-based "" collective (producer David "" Madson and rappers Adam "" Drucker and Yoni "why?" Wolf), transcended the canon of hip hop music on the six- movement cLOUDDEAD (2001) and Ten (2004). They offered hip hop distorted through the lenses of a dystopian vision or through the nervous breakdown of an urban werewolf. The sound effects constituted the core, not just the periphery, of the music, at times even reminiscent of and industrial music.

Tim "Sole" Holland, the main brain behind the "Anticon" collective, unfolded his erudite stream of consciousness with punk fervor over a fluctuating layer of samples and live instruments on Bottle Of Humans (2000) and Selling Live Water (2003). Another white member of Oakland's "Anticon" posse, Brendon "Alias" Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 383

Whitney, wed introspective lyrics and atmospheric electronics on The Other Side of the Looking Glass (2002), and moved towards noir jazz with the instrumental album Muted (2003). Anticon also nursed the talent of frenzied rapper , Paul Franklin, the best lyricist of his generation, whose (2002) and (2005) became the classics of " hip hop", his interference of political and personal discourses enhanced by a new generation of beatmakers and producers.

Canadian hip hop producer and rapper Richard "" Terfry was, at heart, an existential hobo whose laments relied on piano and guitar as much as on the traditional hip hop arsenal. The 45-minute long piece Language Arts (1997) and the concept album Vertex (1999) displayed a unique art of stark storytelling and philosophizing, mixing folk into hip hop.

The border between vocal and instrumental tracks was blurred in the wasteland sculpted by Canadian DJ Robert Squire, a member of the "Anticon" collective, on the lengthy jams of his many productions. The guesting MCs are merely part of the murky, downtempo, post-industrial production, just like the samples, the electronics, the fractured beats and the live instrumentation.

Atlanta's white producer Prefuse 73, Scott Herren, also active as post-rocker Savath & Savalas, heralded laptop-based hip hop with Vocal Studies + Narratives (2001), a tour de force of fractured, warped, incoherent stream of consciousness that mixed glitch music, deconstructed vocals, and jazz patterns. Two albums later, Herren gave his project a more organic and humane face by employing a vast assortment of voices on Surrounded By Silence (2005). Detroit's white producer Dabrye (Tadd Mullinix) created a new instrumental format out of hip hop, funk, jazz and electronica on One/Three (2001).

Northern State is a trio of college-educated white female rappers from New York (Julie "Hesta Prynn" Potash, Correne "Guinea Love" Spero and Robyn "DJ Sprout" Goodmark) that rediscovered the Beastie Boys sound on Dying In Stereo (2003). Party Fun Action Committee, featuring Aesop Rock's producer Tony "Blockhead" Simon, penned the goofy Hip Hopera Let's Get Serious (2003).

White rapper Streets (Mike Skinner), became the English equivalent of Eminem with Original Pirate Material (2002), although his music was grounded on "garage" and his lyrics were frequently sung. San Francisco's Gold Chains, a.k.a. Topher LaFata, mixed rock, reggae and techno on Gold Chains (2001). Atmosphere, the project of Minneapolis-based rapper Sean "Slug" Daley and producer Anthony "Ant" Davis, coined an introspective "emo-rap" on God Loves Ugly (2002).

Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 384

All in all, white hip hop music was more influential on white popular music than on hip hop proper: it grafted the production, rhythmic and rhyming techniques of black hip hop music onto the old singer-songwriter genre (whether political, introspective or sociological). The political "discourse" of white hip hop remained fundamentally different from the discourse of black hip hop. The former was conditioned by the tradition of Euro-American political idealism, which, instead, was never truly part of the Afro-American discourse, traditionally centered on civil rights. Ditto for analytic/existential introspection, which was never truly part of the black repertoire (the blues was a kind of atmospheric introspection, and, in any case, a community-wide introspection, an "inter-spection"). Even the most extreme cases (such as Eminem) displayed a psychoanalytic quality that was generally missing in black hip hop. Ditto for the sociological analysis, which was more rational than antagonistic: white rappers displayed an analytic approach to refounding society as opposed to the cynicism and fatalism of black rappers.

To summarize, white hip hop and black hip hop had different purposes and functions. Ultimately, it was a matter of human geography: as opposed to the ghettos. White people had an "American Dream" that is still very much part of their subconscious (whether one succeeded or failed): black people's "dream" was still Martin Luther's dream, a wildly different kind of dream.

Now for the hip hop aficionados, here is a list of groups famous before 2000:

Some “Early” Hip Hop Groups

Above the Law L.A. based gangsta style" Black Mafia Life", "Pimp Clinic", did "Freedom of Speech" on the movie soundtrack "Pump Up the Volume" Afrika Bambaataa Rapped with Zulu Nation, an older group. Godfather of hip hop. Creation of electrofunk, fueling development of freestyle or , Miami bass, house, , and early techno. "Planet Rock" Afrika Islam One of pioneers of hip hop. Virtuoso DJ. The Afros Comedy, wore afros - "Kickin' Afrotistics" The Aleems Twin brother producers Aliaha Female, "Back and Forth" Almighty RSO "Revenge Ov Da Badd Boyz" Boston rap group AMG Hard core street rap, "Word to the Mother------G", "B----Betta Have My Money" "Playground", "Iesha", remake of "Jealous Girl", young kids formed by Bel Biv Devoe Antoinette The gangstress of rap. Monotone hardcore rhyme style "Who's the Boss?" Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 385

Apache "Apache" featuring single "Gangsta Bitch" African and Native American features - wore long braids. Arabian Prince Formerly of N.W.A. pursued solo career. Arrested Development Jamaican reggae look - in touch with African heritage and awareness. Also bluesy country folk style rap sampled Sly Stone's "Everyday People". "3 Years, 5 Months, 2 Days in the Life of . . ." "Tennessee", about blacks in the south. Audio Two "Top Bittin'". Two brothers of MC Lyte Awesome 2 2 brothers with longest running hip hop radio show. B Angie B "Sweet Thang", produced by Hammer, mostly R&B Bad Boys Blue "Save Your Love", from Europe, hip hop dance style Beastie Boys White rap variety group to be authentically received in hip hop community- albums "Licensed to Ill", "Check Your Head", "Ill Communication" Beatnuts Latino artists and producers in New York. "Intoxicated Demons EP" Bel Biv Devoe Former members of new edition, embarked on a rap and R&B venture of their own B-Fats Introduced the wop with "Woppit", 1986, raised in N.Y. Big Daddy Kane Sex symbol, fine tailored suits and jewelry - acrobatic choreography "Long Live the Kane","Daddy's Home" Big Daddy "The Rave is Back", smooth rap Biz Markie "Vapors", "Just a Friend", "You Got What I Need" uses humor and discusses relationships with women, used illegal samples, new album called "All Samples Cleared" Black Box "Strike It Up", Ride on Time", featured in the movie "The Cutting Edge"

Black Sheep "The Choice is Yours"- explicit - album "Wolf in Sheep's Clothing" pro black education and rights. Lighter sound. Bobcat "Cat Got Ya Tongue" - DJ & producer for LL Cool J Body & Soul Female duo of Lady T and Dzire. "Dance to the Drummer's Beat", "High Powered" Body Count A heavy metal band with lead singer Ice T - 1992 BDP Boogie Down Productions, formed 1986 - see KRS-ONE Bobby Brown Formerly of the New Edition - albums “Don’t Be Cruel" and "Humpin' Around" in New Jack Swing style Bone "Thuggish Ruggish Bone", hardcore Bonethugs-N-Harmony 5 MC's; speed rap with a singsong delivery and occasional harmony Sang about ghetto life. B.O.N.E. stands for several things - Brewed Out Niggas Everyday, Brothers on Normal Elimination, and Budded Out Niggas Everyday, "Creepin' on Ah come Up", E. 1999 Eternal" Boo-Yaa Tribe 6 Samoan brothers - L.A. gang members, funk-rock influence, acrobatic, "The Funky Nation" Boo-yaa is the sound of a shotgun. Boss Gangsta rappin' female - "Born Gangstaz" The Boyz Young artists, R&B and a bit of rap Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 386

Brand Nubian "Everything is Everything" – lessons from the Five Percent Nation of Islam. Grand Puba's outstanding lyrics, left group in 1990. Busy Bee Been around since 1970's. Known as "The Chief Rocker" for his rhyme delivery. Good crowd mover. "Thank God for Busy Bee" BWP Bitches With Power - female rap group, explicit, "No Means No" Tevin Campbell Teenage R&B with traces of rap C&C Music Factory Mostly R&B, a guy and a girl, , produced by Cliviles and Cole, who play most of the music Nina Cherrie Female British rapper with R&B Chill Rob G Socially and politically-conscious rhymes in early '80's "Ride the Rhythm", "The Power" Chubb Rock Dexterity in MC styles, major rap technician. "The One" "clean version" Coke La Rock 1st person to MC using crowd motivating lines. MC with Kool DJ Herc in early 1970's. Cold Crush Brothers 1st group of MC's to emerge in late 1970's. Introduced narrative structure in rap, 1st to MC and DJ simultaneously. College Boyz "Hollywood Paradox", everyday issues Compton's Most Wanted"Music to the Drive By", "We Come Strapped" - hard core gangsta rap Cookie Crew Female rappers from London, sociopolitical issues, "Fade to Black" Coolio San Fransisco rapper, party songs,"Fantastic Voyage", 1994 Remake of hit song "Too Hot" Cosmic Force 1st of Afrika Bambaataa's Zulu Nation to make a record. "Zulu Nation Throwdown" Craig Mack "Project: Funk Da World" Crash Crew 6 man group, Harlem, late '70's and early '80's. Combined MC'ing skills with vocal harmony Criminal Nation Topics Nation controlled by politics, drugs Cypress Hill "Stoned is the Way of the Walk", pro marijuana, psychedelic "Black Sunday" bilingual (Spanglish) lyrics Da Brat Young female rapper found at a Kriss Kross concert "Funktafied" "", How I Could Just Kill a Man", "", anti- police group, album "Black Sunday" with hit " " Da Dogg Pound "Let's Play House" produced by Dr. Dre, features Snoop Doggy Dogg Da Lench Mob "Gorillas in the Midst", "Buck the Devil" hard core, positive, pro black, produced by Ice Cube Dana Dane Playful, narrative rhymes with occasional cartoon-like characters. "Rollin' Wit Dana Dane" Das EFX "They Want EFX" - nonsense lyrics, scatting "iggedy" words, "Straight Up Sewaside", have degrees in English from Howard University, hardcore, I've heard it called "sewer rap" Davy D DJ - classic scratch record "One for the Treble" Da Youngstas Goodman Brothers "No Mercy" D Boy Christian Rap DC Talk Christian Rap Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 387

Def Jam Recordings Most influential record label in rap Deff Jeff Afrocentric and socially conscious rhymes, "Soulfood" De La Soul "Three Feet High and Rising" album 1st to liberate sampling from the usual James Brown samples by using every conceivable genre imaginable. "" brought about free spirit rapping; jazz hip hop, being yourself - psychedelic, "Buhloone Mindstate" Del the Funkee Homosapien-Samples Funkadelic (George Clinton), west coast rap/hip hop style, albums "I Wish My Brother George Was Here", "" Digable Planets "Rebirth of Slick (Cool Like Dat)", "Where I'm From", hip hop with jazz elements Digital Underground More like an organization than a group. Led by keyboardist Shock G, known for various characters he plays within group, "Kiss You Back", "The Humpty Dance", "Sex Packets" "The Body-Hat Syndrome" - topics - females, sex, partying, comedy, switches rappers, cult rap DJ Chuck Chillout Pioneer radio DJ, "Master of the Rhythm" DJ Flowers Early '70's, one of 1st mobile DJ's. Died in '92. DJ Known for perfect timing on the turntables, cutting and backspinning DJ Hollywood Originated extensive rhymes over recorded disco records. DJ Jazzy Jeff and the Fresh Prince - TV show "The Prince of Belair" - pop rap, "Parents Just Don't Understand", "Boom", "Code Red", humorous DJ Lazz Latin Rapper DJ Quik "Tonight", "Quick is the Name", "Born and Raised in Compton", party music, inner city DJ Spinderella (Dee Dee Roper) with Salt n' Pepa D Nice "To Tha Rescue", former BDP member The D.O.C. "No One Can Do It Better", "Lend Me an Ear", "The Formula", "Funky Enough", produced by Dr. Dre Domino Life in the ghetto themes Dream Warriors Canadian, use of jazz horns, produced by Pete Rock Dr. Jeckell and Mr. Hyde - Early rappers who also produced other groups Doug E. Fresh Comedy, beat boxes, "La di Da di", band was the "get fresh crew" Dr. Dre(Andre Young) Hard core rapper, started with N.W.A., now a producer of Death Row Record Productions DRS Gangsta rap, "Gangsta Lean" Easy E (Eric Wright) "Eazy Does It", 1994 album "I'm Killa", sued Dr. Dre for leaving record company, with N.W.A. Died of AIDS, 1995. EDOG and the Bulldogs - Message rap EPMD "Crossover", about crossing over into different musical styles produced Das EFX, K-Solo, Redman Eric B. and Rakim Slow rap, sampling, an influential group EU "Da Butt" Fat Boys Pop and rock n' roll hip hop, comedy about being overweight Father MC "Affection", songs about women Funk Doobiest "Cypress Hill Clones" Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 388

Fu Schnickens "Fu Don't Take it Seriously", "Ring the Alarm", I'm a True What", I'm a True Fu-Schnick, "La Schmoove", " Rap", fast raps, has appeared with basketball star Shaquille O' Neal (then of the Orlando Magic) Gang Starr Jazzy beats with smooth, flowing rap with Guru and DJ Premier, "Words I Manifest" built around Dizzy Gillespie's jazz hit "Night in Tunisia"- albums "Gang Starr", Step in the Arena", and "Daily Operation" use a lot of jazz elements Geto Boyz Sampled Steve Miller's "Gangster of Love", "Mind Playing Tricks on Me", hard core, social issues, urban life Giant Steps "Giant Steps" acid jazz GUY New style called New Jack Swing, uses hard bass line, "Let's Chill", "Groove Me", "Teddy's Jam", I Like", Do Me Right" (with Heavy D), "D-O-G Me Out" "Let's Stay Together", and "Wanna Get With You”, Teddy Riley produced Grand Puba "Reel to Reel", created Brand Nubians Hammer (MC Hammer) "Let's Get It Started", his 1st rap album, "Can't Touch This", "Please Hammer Don't Hurt 'Em", biggest rap album in 1990, "Too Legit to Quit", a more hip hop album, "Help the Children" teaches anti-drugs, anti-racism, criticized as banal, but reached a huge audience, filed for bankruptcy 1994 Heavy D and the Boyz "Good for You", "Now That We Found Love", "Girlz They Love Me", "Peaceful Journey", "Blue Funk", Nothin' But Love", smooth flow rapper, plus R&B with high energy dancers, Heavy is from Jamaica House of Pain "Jump Around", "Shamrocks and Shannigans", a white Irish group, hardcore Ice Cube "No Vasoline", “Predator" album debuted in Billboard top spot, "Wicked", formerly of NWA, starred in movie "Boyz in the Hood" and "Tresspass", recorded with George Clinton - rap with funk, "Lethal Injection" Ice T "Girls LGBNAF", hard core, adult, starred in movie "New Jack City", uses heavy metal band, trying to form own record label, "Cop Killer" has taken a lot of heat for its controversy, and was eventually removed from all the post-1992 "Body Count" albums, used illegal samples Jack "Don't Walk Away" Jaminogan "Emergency on Planet Earth" JJ Fad 3 Women rappers, pop rap, produced by Dr. Dre, formerly Supersonic Montell Jordan "This is How We Do It", Hard hitting Dance Beat with Rap Jungle Brothers "Tribe Vibes", Nathaniel Hall (Afrika Baby Bambaataa", the jungle referred to was Harlem, "Behind the Bush" shows love and respect for women Kid Frost "Homicide", from album "Hispanic Causing Panic", and "Low Rider on the Boulevard" from album "Latin Alliance", which used samples from Santana, Latin American, raps in English and Spanish KMFDM Rap-techno crossover Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 389

Kool Moe Dee "Knowledge is King", educational and moral values, being positive, one of the original rappers Kriss Kross (Mac Daddy and Daddy Mac) "Jump", "Warm it Up", pop hip hop, 2 kids, wear clothes backwards, anti drug, youngest to go platinum KRS-1 "Knowledge Reigns Supreme Over Nearly Everyone" In touch with African heritage, message rap, Boogie Down Productions K7 "Come Baby Come", sexual themes, some jazz influence K Solo Developed style of spelling out words while rapping L.A. Star Female rapper Leaders of the New School - "Just Another Case of That Old PTA", "Feminine Fat", jazzy rap LL Cool J "Mama Said Knock You Out", took rap to a new level of seriousness, hard core, used to battle Kool Moe Dee on the mike - "Hey Lover" features Boyz II Men LV Sang on Coolio's "Gangster Paradise" for film "Dangerous MInds" Marky Mark and the Funky Bunch - "Good Vibrations", anti drug white rappers with 3 black females, commercial Massive Attack "Blue Lines" MC Brain "Brainstorming", "Oochie Coochie" about the way females dance MC Breed "20 Below" album MC Lyte "Lyte as a Rock", leader in the movement of women onto the rap stage MC Ren Formerly of NWA, album "Kizz My Black Azz" flopped MC Scat Cat "Opposites Attract", with Paula Abdul MC Serch "Here it Comes", a white rapper formerly of 3rd Bass, on solo career MC Sham Said to have set up murder of "Scott La Rock", DJ of BDP in 1986 Mellow Man Ace Bilingual Latin American rapper Menace II Society Hard core Michel'le R&B singer produced by Dr. Dre Mike D Funky '70's disco sound (white) Monie Love (Simone Johnson) - Female from England, "Monie in the Middle" Mother Earth "Stoned Woman" Mr. Grimm "Indo Smoke" Mr. Scarface "Mr. Scarface", from the Ghetto Boyz Nate Dogg "Regulate" with Warren G for movie "Above the Rim" Native Tongues Posse Actually several groups in Manhattan that use funky music to promote African pride, unity, and clothing Naughty By Nature "O.P.P." their debut hit, "Ghetto Bastard", "Yoke the Joker", album "Nineteen Naughty Three"- "Hip Hop Hooray" New Jersey Kings "Party to the Bus Stop" Notorious B.I.G. Poppa "One More Chance". Murdered in 1996 N.W.A. "Niggas With Attitudes", adult, album "Straight Outa Compton" about brutal life of L.A., Ice Cube, Easy E, MC Ren, Dr. Dre, "Efil4Zaggin" (Niggaz 4 Life spelled backwards) 1991 N2 Deep "Back to the Hotel", 2 rappers ONYX Yelling and hollering - album "Slam" Paper Boy "Ditty" Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 390

Paris "The Devil Made Me Do It", "Bush Killer" stirs controversy, part of EPMD Pete Rock and CL Smooth- Message rap, smooth beat and jazzy rhythms Pharcyde Jazz sampling, free rap style PM Dawn "Paper Doll" - psychedelic rap with a funky guitar style "Set Adrift on Memory Bliss of You", "Die Without You", from Eddie Murphy movie "", new album - "The Bliss Album" - "Looking Through Patient Eyes", also R&B and lots of sampling Poor Righteous Teachers - "Word From the Wise" Portrait "Here We Go Again" Positive K "I Got a Man" Prime Minister Pete Formerly of 3rd Bass, now on solo career Proper Dos L.A. Mexican group speaking about gang violence, drugs, family life Public Enemy "Yo, Bum Rush the Show", album "Fear of a Black Planet", electronic sampling, brought political issues into rap, sometimes called the "Black Panthers of rap", teamed up with heavy metal group Anthrax in 1991 in "Bring the Noise", "Apocalypse 91.. .The Enemy Strikes Back", "It Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold Us Back" Queen Latifah (Dana Owns), major female rapper, female rights, member of Native Tongues Posse, "Latifiah" represents sensitivity to the Muslim culture, "Ladies First", with Monie Love, a hip hop anthem to feminism Rage produced by Dr. Dre; also a successful actress rappin' 4tays "Playaz Club" RBX Produced by Dr. Dre Red Man Adult themes, marijuana Rico Latin Rapper, Rico Gerardo, "Suavé", raps in English and Spanish R. Kelly Sexual themes, "Bump and Grind", "Sadie" Rob Base and DJ EZ-E "It Takes Two", "Joy and Pain" Run DMC Major early rap group, movie "Tougher Than Leather", comeback in 1993, new album "Down With the King", leaders of new age in rap Salt N' Pepa First successful female rappers, safe sex, "Let's Talk About Sex", "Push It", album "Very Necessary" has made rap more feminine, "None of Your Business", respect for personal choices SFC "A Saved Man in the Jungle" Shabba Ranks Scats, Jamaican accent, sexual topics, style, reggae Shaggy Featuring Ken Boothe, "The Train is Coming" from movie "Money Train" - Jamaican Rapper, "Boom Bastik" Shaq Yep, the basketball star did an album, "Shaq Diesel" Shinehead "The Truth", "Gimme No Crack", "Raggamuffin" Sir Mix A Lot "Baby Get Back", comedy, excessive sampling Sister Soulja African messages and heritage, not a Bill Clinton fan 69 Boyz "Tootsie Roll" Skee Low "I Wish" Slick Rick the Ruler Mellow raps and storytelling, formerly with Doug E. Fresh Smooth Single female from New York, "Female Mac" Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 391

Snap "The Power", "Rhythm is a Dancer", pre-recorded sounds and vocals, stole hit "The Power", from Chill Rob G Snoop Doggy Dog Produced by Dr. Dre, "What's My Name?", albums "Doggy Style", "Murder Was the Case", alcohol/drug themes, also in movies Snow "Informer", "Girl I've Been Hurt", white reggae, slow rap Solosonics "Jazz in the Present Tense", acid jazz Spearhead "Hole in the Bucket" Explicit Steady B "I Serious" Bill Stephney Producer of Public Enemy Stetsasonic "If You Can't Say It All, Just Say Stet", first rap band Super Cat Jamaican funk with rap SWV (Sisters With Voices), mostly R&B - "I'm So Into You", "Weak" Tag Team "Whomp There it is" Technotronic "Pump Up the Jam" That Nigga Daz Produced by Dr. Dre 3rd Bass White rap, anti-commercial raps, make fun of and MC Hammer, no longer exist TLC "Baby-Baby-Baby", "Ain't Too Proud to Beg", "", 3 female rappers, earned respect for women, safe sex, wore condoms on their outfits, bright colored baggy clothes Tone Loc "Wild Thing", remake of '60's hit, also "Funky Cold Medina" Toni Tony Tone Rap and R&B Too Short Also do "Ain't To Proud to Beg", "I Ain't Trippin", pro-drug, adult, profane, bright colored baggy clothes, ghetto topics, emphasizes a lot of bass, "Shorty the Pimp", underground rap Total Devastation Puerto Rican rap A Tribe Called Quest "The Low End Theory", Ron Carter (jazz virtuoso) plays bass throughout album "Scenario", jazzy rap style, "" 2 Live Crew Hard core rap, "Nasty As They Wanna Be", "Banned in the USA", obscenity laws tested, no longer together Tupac Shakur "2 Pacalypse Now", from Digital Underground, hard core, anti-police, was sued after someone shot a police officer and had his tape in the car. Shot to death in 1996. 2 Unlimited Dance/technopop - "Twilight Zone", "Shake Your Body" Urban Dance Squad Crossover funk/rap, album "I'm Not Sure" US3 Jazz rap, using samples from jazz classics, song "Cantaloop", Album "Hand on the Torch" UTFO "Split Personality", "Roxanne, Roxanne" Vanilla Ice White, did a movie called "Cold as Ice", also in "Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles II" Voices to Sing Female rappers Warren G G-Funk (a combination of gangsta and funk rap, produced by Dr. Dre, "Regulate", for soundtrack "Above the Rim", talks about getting out of the ghetto Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 392

Whodini "Freaks Come Out at Night" "One Love", "Fresh Fest", singing with rap, sexual topics, old school Willie D Hardcore, left Ghetto Boyz to make own album Wrecks n' Effect "Rumpshaker", produced by Teddy Riley, formerly of GUY Wu-Tang Clan Vulgar about women, society, and own race X Clan African heritage and rage Xscape "Who Can I Run To", Motown Soul" Young MC "Bust a Move" (late "80's), college graduate in finance, uses experiences in rap Yo Yo Female rapper teaching respect for women, produced by Ice Cube, "Make Way for the Motherlode", started IBWC (Intelligent Black Women's Coalition"

Hip-hop and the Digital Producer Hip-hop dominated the charts during the first decade of the 21st century. That represented a dramatic change from 50 years earlier, when black music had been segregated to the "race" charts. The reason why rap artists appealed to such a broad audience was probably that they boasted, on average, the best producers. Music (whether popular or classical) in the second half of the 20th century had been increasingly focusing on the soundscape, on sculpting the atmosphere, rather than on the melody. Hip-hop music completed that trend by mostly disposing of the melody and setting the lyrics in a purely atmospheric context. The producer (the sound director and sculptor) was clearly more important in hip-hop music than in other genres. Competition among producers in turn led to a generation of more and more sophisticated producers. Very few rock producers could compete with hip- hop producers in terms of instrumental creativity.

It was the black producers of the 2000’s who inherited the mantle of the white producers of the 1960’s (Joe Meek, Phil Spector, George Martin, Brian Wilson) who had coined the concept of the studio as an instrument.

Another appeal of hip-hop music rested on the fact that the lyrics of rappers tended to be less pompous and indulgent than the lyrics of rockers. It made sense to listen to the raps in a way that did not make sense in rock music. Rockers were largely speaking to an older audience that was still interested in personal existential journeys (the same way that country singers had been speaking to an older audience when rockers were speaking to a younger audience). The younger generation (especially in the middle class) was often more attracted to the down- to-earth lyrics of black rappers.

Hip Hop 2000’s As white hip hop became more competitive, black hip hop reached a creative crisis that forced the new generations to focus on sound manipulation rather than on Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 393

messages. At the turn of the century, hip hop music was borrowing from other musical genres as well as recycling its own vocabulary of breaks, samples, and themes. New technology allowed producers to wrap everything into an original art of atmosphere/ambience sculpting. The "message" was becoming less and less important. The sociopolitical landscape was also radically changed by the 2001 terrorist attacks against New York and Washington: the debate shifted from class conflict to religious conflict, which contributed to neutralize the original sociopolitical fuel of hip hop music.

The Virginia production team The Neptunes (Chad Hugo and Pharrell Williams), already among the most successful hip hop producers, formed N.E.R.D. with rapper Sheldon "Shay" Haley. In Search Of (2001), remixed the following year with live instrumentation, and especially Fly or Die (2004) indulged in a neurotic melange of sonic stereotypes and production techniques of metal, funk, soul and pop. Northern Californian duo Blackalicious (rapper Tim "Gift of Gab" Parker and producer Xavier "Chief Xcel" Mosley) crafted a lyrical and nostalgic sound with Nia (2000).

London's Dylan Mills, better known as Dizzee Rascal, a member of the "Roll Deep Crew", promoted a new genre (""), an abrasive version of "garage" (itself a variant of drum n’ bass), with Boy in Da Corner (2003). The other British "next big thing" of the era was Sri Lankan-born agit-prop chanteuse Maya Arulpragasam, or M.I.A. for short, whose Arular (2005) simply mixed hip hop, reggae and pop, while fostering a hard-line ideology that embraced both the political and the sexual, part Jello Biafra and part .

The decadence of West-Coast rap was well represented by the groups that were supposed to rejuvenate it, but Dilated Peoples and Jurassic 5, whose enthusiastic and amusing Quality Control (2000) and especially Power in Numbers (2002) amounted more to a revival of old-fashioned rap. Even Madvillain's (Stones Throw, 2004), the much publicized collaboration between New York-based rapper Daniel "MF Doom" Dumile (the former Zen Love of KMD) and Los Angeles- based producer Otis "Madlib"Jackson, was mostly an impressive tour de force of production techniques; the same skills that Jackson had already displayed on several solo recordings, notably Quasimoto's The Unseen (2000) and Yesterdays New Quintet's Angles Without Edges (2001).

Other significant albums released at the turn of the century included: Seven Eyes Seven Horns (1999), by producer Phillip "Scaramanga" Collington, who worked on Kool Keith's Dr Octagon project; Walter "Killah Priest" Reed's spiritual tour de force Heavy Mental (1998), from New York; Curtis "50 Cent" Jackson's Power of the Dollar (1999), from New York; Supreme Clientele (2000) and The Pretty Toney Album (2004), by Wu-Tang Clan's member Dennis "Ghostface Killah" Coles; the Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 394

Metabolics' M-Virus (1999), a New York duo produced by Bimos; Christopher "Ludacris" Bridges' Back For The First Time (2000), from Atlanta; Coming Forth By Day - The Book Of The Dead (2000), by New Jersey's jazz-hop crew Scienz of Life; Let's Get Ready (2000), the fifth album by New Orleans rapper Mystikal, a pupil of Master P who adopted a James Brown-ish persona; People Under the Stairs' second album Question in the Form of an Answer (2000), a collection of jams almost entirely created from funk and jazz samples, the project of Los Angeles Mike "Double K" Turner and Chris "Thes One" Portugal, bent on re-appropriating the D.I.Y. aesthetics of early party-rap; Black Mamba Serums (2004), by former Company Flow rapper Justin "Bigg Jus" Ingleton; Ty Upwards' Awkward (2001), an original Afro-funk-jazz-rap fusion from Britain; The End of the Beginning (2003), by veteran Los Angeles rapper Murs, a former member of 3 Melancholy Gypsies (or 3MG) and Mystik Journeymen's "Living Legends" collective, produced by 9th Wonder; Little Brother's The Listening (2003), the North Carolina-based brainchild of 9th Wonder; Dudley Perkins' A Lil Light (2003), another production by Madlib; etc.

The new auteurs included: Kansas City's Aaron "" Yates, with the rap-rock fusion of The Calm Before The Storm (1999), Anghellic (2001) and Absolute Power (2002); New York's Terrence "Tes" Tessora, with the apocalyptic post-industrial soundscapes of the Take Home (2000) and x2 (2003); New York's , with Quality (2002); Canada's K-OS (Kheaven Brereton), with Exit (2003).

RJD2, the project of Ohio-based producer Ramble Jon Krohn, turned Deadringer (Def Jux, 2002) into a tour de force of cinematic collages of samples and wicked stuttering beats, dilating and deforming Sixties soundtracks, smooth jazz, soul themes, gloomy atmospheres. On the lighter side, Los Angeles' rapper Regan "Busdriver" Farquar, mixed goofy energetic scat-tinged rapping and eclectic beats on Temporary Forever (2002).

Chicago's Kanye West produced Jay-Z, Talib Kweli and Alicia Keys and then fashioned one of the most personal concepts of the era, The College Dropout (2004). Boston's white rapper Edan Portnoy fused acid-rock and hip hop on Beauty And The Beat (2005), the same way Sly Stone fused acid-rock and funk music four decades earlier.

Minnesota's white quartet Kill The Vultures wed punk, jazz and hip-hop on Kill The Vultures (2005). The new star of soul music was Raheem DeVaughn, who debuted with The Love Experience (2005) and broke through with the more traditional Love Behind the Melody (2008). The rhythm'n'blues diva of the decade was Beyonce Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 395

Knowles, now a solo artist after dropping the best-selling female group of all time, Destiny's Child.

Why? debuted with Oaklandazulasylum (2003) in the vein of San Francisco's numerous freak acts that bent genres and derided stereotypes. With the romantic (2005) and the tragic Alopecia (2008), though, two albums that mirrored each other three years apart, Why? perfected an unlikely fusion of rap, minimalism and rock while using it as the scaffolding for frontman 's brutally vivid and earnest lyrics. Prolyphic & , i.e. the duo of Chicago's producer Reanimator and Rhode Island's rapper Prolyphic, refined their mentor Sage Francis' introspective and multi-layered style on The Ugly Truth (2008).

Instrumental Hip-hop, 2000’s Detroit's white producer Dabrye (Tadd Mullinix) created a new instrumental format out of hip-hop, funk, jazz and electronica on One/Three (2001). In Los Angeles, Busdriver's white producer Alfred "Daedelus" Roberts (1) painted the disjointed murals of Invention (2002), setting collages of samples to hip-hop beats, mixing sci-fi electronica and orchestral kitsch; an art that he refined and culminated with the elegant retro parade of Exquisite Corpse (2005), where the samples of orchestral music of the 1930’s came to constitute the musical equivalent of a collective stream of consciousness.

Inspired by New York's "" scene, a number of djs aimed for a hip-hop that could transcend hip-hop, that is, for a new (ambient, psychological, free-form) form of art founded on the marriage of poetry and sound. Ohio-born dj Boom Bip (Bryan Hollon), a self-described "anti-dj", well impersonated the sound sculptor and collage assembler of the new wave of hip-hop with the mind-boggling exercise in hip-hop counterpoint of Seed to Sun (2002).

RJD2, the project of white Ohio-based producer Ramble Jon Krohn, turned Deadringer (2002) into a tour de force of cinematic collages of samples and wicked stuttering beats, dilating and deforming Sixties soundtracks, smooth jazz, soul themes and gloomy atmospheres. Los Angeles' producer Paris Zax tried to fuse hip-hop and acid-rock on the all-instrumental Unpath'd Waters (2005). Lucas "Cut Chemist" MacFadden rediscovered the joyful childish art of audio collage on The Audience's Listening (2006). James Yancey upped the ante of instrumental sample- based (and schizophrenically fragmented) hip-hop with Donuts (2006), credited to both his nicknames and Jay Dee. Los Angeles-based producer Steven Allison, better known as , was emblematic of a generation that was employing laptop computers to generate sounds previously impossible, both in terms of (noisy) arrangement and in terms of (convulsive) rhythms. 1983 (2006) also displayed a broad range of influences. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 396

British Styles of the 2000’s London's Dylan Mills, better known as Dizzee Rascal (1), a member of the "Roll Deep Crew", promoted a new genre ("grime"), an abrasive version of "garage" (itself a variant of drum'n'bass), with Boy in Da Corner (2003). The other British "next big thing" of the era was Sri Lankan-born agit-prop chanteuse Maya Arulpragasam, or M.I.A. for short, whose Arular (2005) simply mixed hip-hop, reggae and pop, while fostering a hard-line ideology that embraced both the political and the sexual, part Jello Biafra and part Madonna. Kala (2007) was less immediate but more visceral, a giant cauldron of artificial, natural, social and musical sounds. Streets, the project of Mike Skinner, a white British rapper, jumped on the bandwagon of the latest dance fads ("garage" and "two step") and turned them into tools to construct generational anthems. Original Pirate Material (2002) turned Streets into the English equivalent of Eminem.

Dubstep originated in London (probably in a club called "Forward>>" in 2001) as a bass-heavy instrumental dance music derived from garage, a sort of middle ground between two-step and dub. Unlike grime, that was fundamentally orientated towards the vocals, was more about the atmosphere. Digital Mystikz, Loefah and Kode9 were among the pioneers of the scene, but it was Skream with Midnight Request Line (2005) that established it as a major force in dance music.

The first artist to emerge from the British dubstep scene and reach a broader audience was Will "Burial" Bevan (1). Burial (2006) actually seemed rather an evolution of the gloomy trip-hop ambience of the 1990’s shaken by post-jungle breaks; but it included metallic post-industrial polyrhythms, miasmatic electronics and "concrete" collages of noise, voices and beats. Reintroducing the vocals, its follow-up Untrue (2007) wed dubstep with soul music.

Other milestones of the grime/dubstep scene included: Richard "Wiley" Cowie's Treddin' On Thin Ice (2004), Virus Syndicate's The Work Related Illness (2005), Kane "Kano" Robinson's Home Sweet Home (2005), Maxwell "Lethal Bizzle" Ansah's Against All Oddz (2005), Steve Milanese's Extend (2006), Barry "Boxcutter" Lynn's Oneiric (2006), Louise-Amanda "Lady Sovereign" Harman's Vertically Challenged (2006), Steve "Kode9" Goodman's Memories Of The Future (2006), Greg "Distance" Sanders's My Demons (2007), Jan "Disrupt" Gleichmar's Foundation Bit (2007), Rob "Pinch" Ellis' Underwater Dancehall (2007), Beni "Benga" Uthman's Diary Of An Afro Warrior (2008).

There were few musicians left who were worthy of the great drum'n'bass innovators of the past. Shitmat (1), the brainchild of British producer Henry Collins, specialized in spastic drill'n'bass and peppered with Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 397

Jamaican-style ragga shouting on Killababylonkutz (2004), that contained multiple remixes of the same song in completely different directions, and on Full English Breakfest (2004), originally released as five EPs; and then converted to madcap collages with Hang The DJ (2006), a wild and witty merry-go-round of samples from such diverse sources as heavy metal and orchestral pop. Neil "Landstrumm" Sutherland's Restaurant Of Assassins (2007) offered an original fusion of drill'n'bass, dubstep and glitchy noise.

Clarence Park (2001) by English electronic musician Chris Clark provided a diligent summary of English electronica of the previous decade (Squarepusher, Aphex Twin and Autechre), running the gamut from ambient music to glitch music to drum'n'bass to synth-pop. Inspired by Shitmat, DJ Scotch Egg (Japanese producer Shigeru Ishihara, based in Brighton) used a handheld to shape dance-music of the genre, as documented on KFC Core (2005). British pop stars of the end of the decade included the Sugarbabes, a female trio (, and ), with Push the Button (2005), and Aimee Duffy, with the soul-tinged Mercy (2008).

World-hop Cadence Weapon, the moniker chosen by Western Canada's white rapper Rollie Pemberton, utilized a broad (and still cohesive) palette of beats and virtuoso claustrophobic studio arrangements on Breaking Kayfabe (2005). Shadow Huntaz, formed by Dutch producers Don and Roel Funcken and three USA rappers, delivered a delirious fusion of glitch music and hip-hop music, influenced by the iconoclastic jams of both acid-rock and free-jazz, on Corrupt Data (2004).

One of the most intriguing takes on the whole scene came from Australia. Terminal (Halo's bassist Skye Klein) probed the landscape of dubstep, drum'n'bass and trip-hop, sculpting glitch-ambient music over a bed of chaotic breakbeats on albums such as Compressor (2007) and Constructing Towers (2008). In Japan the most intriguing work was perhaps Neutrino (2004), by Japanese duo Neutrino (Atsuhiro Murakami and Hideki Kuroda).360

Crunk and Snap Music Crunk originated from southern hip hop in the late 1990’s. The style was pioneered and commercialized by artists from Memphis, Tennessee and Atlanta, Georgia. Looped, stripped-down rhythms are usually used. The Roland TR-808 and 909 are among the most popular. The drum machines are usually accompanied by

360 The narrative from pp. 367-384 and pp. 392-403 is taken nearly verbatim from the rap and hip hop expert Professor Piero Scaruffi at scaruffi.com. None of this information is used for profit. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 398

simple, repeated synthesizer melodies and heavy bass stabs. The tempo of the music is somewhat slower than hip-hop, around the speed of reggaeton.

The focal point of crunk is more often the beats and music than the lyrics therein. Crunk rappers, however, often shout and scream their lyrics, creating an aggressive, almost heavy, style of hip-hop. While other subgenres of hip-hop address sociopolitical or personal concerns, crunk is almost exclusively party music, favoring call and response hip-hop slogans in lieu of more substantive approaches.

Snap music is an subgenre of crunk that emerged from Atlanta, Georgia, in the late 1990’s. The genre soon gained mainstream popularity and in mid-2005 artists from other southern states such as Texas and Tennessee began to emerge with this style. Tracks commonly consist of an 808 bassdrum, hi-hat, bass, snapping, a main groove and a vocal track. Hit snap songs include "Lean Wit It, Rock Wit It" by "Dem Franchize Boys", "Laffy Taffy" by D4L, "It's Goin' Down" by Yung Joc and "Crank That (Soulja Boy)" by Soulja Boy Tell 'Em.

Glitch Hop and Wonky Music Glitch hop is a fusion genre of hip hop and glitch music that originated in the early to mid 2000’s in the United States and Europe. Musically, it is based on irregular, chaotic breakbeats, glitchy and other typical sound effects used in glitch music, like skips. Glitch hop artists include Prefuse 73, Dabrye, Flying Lotus. Artists, noted for creating Wonky are Joker[disambiguation needed], Hudson Mohawke, and Flying Lotus.

Wonky is a subgenre of hip hop that originated around 2008 all around the globe (but most notably in the United States and , and among international artists of the Hyperdub music label), under the influence of glitch hop and dubstep. Wonky music is of the same glitchy type as glitch hop, but it was specifically noted for its melodies, rich with "mid-range unstable synths". Scotland has become one of the most prominent places, where wonky music was shaped by artists like Hudson Mohawke and Rustie. In Glasgow, Rustie has created the substyle of wonky music called "aquacrunk", a fusion of wonky and crunk music; the most specific trait of aquacrunk is its "aquatic" synths.

Glitch hop and wonky are popular among limited amount of people interested in , electronic music (especially, dubstep); neither glitch hop nor wonky have met any mainstream popularity.

Decline in Sales Starting in 2005, sales of hip hop music in the United States began to severely wane, leading Time magazine to question if mainstream hip-hop was "dying." Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 399

Billboard Magazine found that, since 2000, rap sales dropped 44%, and declined to 10% of all music sales, which, while still a commanding figure when compared to other genres, is a significant drop from the 13% of all music sales where rap music regularly placed. NPR culture critic Elizabeth Blair noted that, "some industry experts say young people are fed up with the violence, degrading imagery and lyrics."

Others say the music is just as popular as it ever was, but that fans have found other means to consume the music. It can also be argued that many young people now download music illegally, especially through P2P networks, instead of purchasing albums and singles from legitimate stores. For example, Flo Rida is known for his low album sales regardless of his singles being mainstream and having digital success. His second album R.O.O.T.S. sold only 200,000+ total units in the U.S., which could not line up to the sales of the album's lead single "Right Round". This also happened to him in 2008. Some put the blame on the lack of lyrical content that hip hop once had. Soulja Boy Tell 'Em's 2007 debut album souljaboytellem.com was met with negative reviews.

Lack of sampling, a key element of hip hop, has also been noted for the decrease in quality of modern albums. For example, there are only four samples used in 2008's Paper Trail by T.I., while there are 35 samples in 1998's Moment of Truth by Gang Starr. The decrease in sampling is in part due to it being too expensive for producers. Byron Hurt's documentary Hip Hop: Beyond Beats and Rhymes claims that hip hop had changed from "clever rhymes and dance beats" to "advocating personal, social and criminal corruption." Despite the fall in record sales throughout the music industry, hip-hop has remained a popular genre, with hip-hop artists still regularly topping the Charts. In the first half of 2009 alone artists such as Eminem, Rick Ross, Black Eyed Peas, and Fabolous all had albums that reached the #1 position on the Billboard 200 charts. Eminem's album Relapse was one of the fastest selling album of 2009. In the first half of 2010 alone four hip hop acts topped the Billboard 200; Ludacris, B.o.B, and again Eminem.

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361 Eminem performing in 2010

Innovation and Revitalization It was in the later 2000’s that alternative hip hop finally secured a place within the mainstream, due in part to the declining commercial viability of gangsta rap as well as the crossover success of artists such as OutKast, Kanye West, and Gnarls Barkley. Not only did OutKast's Speakerboxxx/The Love Below receive high acclaim from music critics, manage to appeal to listeners of all ages, and span numerous musical genres – including rap, rock, R&B, punk, jazz, indie, country, pop, electronica and gospel – but it also spawned two number-one hit singles and has been certified diamond by selling 11 times platinum by the RIAA for shipping more than 11 million units, becoming the best selling rap album of all time as well as winning a Grammy Award for Album of the Year at the 46th Annual Grammy Awards (being only the second rap album to do so).

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Industry observers view the sales race between Kanye West's Graduation and 50 Cent's Curtis as a turning point for hip hop. West emerged the victor, selling nearly a million copies in the first week alone, proving that innovative rap music could be just as commercially viable as gangsta rap, if not more so. Although he designed it as a melancholic pop rather than rap, Kanye's following 808s & Heartbreak would have a significant effect on hip hop music. While his decision to sing about love, loneliness, and heartache for the entirety of the album was at first heavily criticized by music audiences, its subsequent critical acclaim and commercial success encouraged other mainstream rappers to take greater creative risks with their music. During the release of The Blueprint 3, New York rap mogul Jay-Z revealed that next studio album would be an experimental effort, stating, "... it's not gonna be a #1 album. That's where I'm at right now. I wanna make the most experimental album I ever made.” Jay-Z elaborated that like Kanye, he was unsatisfied with contemporary hip hop, was being inspired by indie-rockers like Grizzly Bear and asserted his belief that the movement would play an important role in the continued evolution of hip-hop.

The alternative hip hop movement is not limited solely to the United States, as rappers such as Somali-Canadian poet K'naan, Japanese rapper Shing02, and Sri Lankan British artist M.I.A. have achieved considerable worldwide recognition.

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In 2009, TIME magazine placed M.I.A in the Time 100 list of "World's Most Influential people" for having "global influence across many genres.” Today, due in part to the increasing use of music distribution through the internet, many alternative rap artists find acceptance by far-reaching audiences. Several burgeoning artists such as Kid Cudi and Drake have managed to attain record- breaking, chart-topping hit songs, "Day 'n' Night" and "Best I Ever Had" respectively, which they both released on free online mixtapes without the help of a major record label. The pair, along with other new artists such as Wale, The Cool Kids, Jay Electronica, and B.o.B, openly acknowledge being directly influenced by their '90’s alt-rap predecessors in addition to alt-rock groups while their music has been noted by critics as expressing eclectic sounds, life experiences, and emotions rarely seen in mainstream hip hop.362

The hip hop culture continues to broaden its horizons and diversify. As new technology continues to change the face of music, there are likely new combinations of black music that will be done that cannot even be imagined right now. If the past can be any indication, black music and popular music are likely headed for some major changes – a paradigm shift in popular taste is likely to occur sooner rather than later!

362 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hip_hop_music (while not an “academic” source, this offers the most concise update on hip hop available at this time)…as always, this section will be revised!

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Latin American Music in the U.S.

Complex and Diverse Cultures The representations and cultural influences of Latin Americans in the U.S. have been underestimated in historical writings, in the media, and in many cases ignored completely. The population demographics of the western hemisphere have undergone considerable change since the beginning of the twentieth century, with many in the northern hemisphere moving south, and vice versa. Despite a language barrier and recent debates over immigration policies, a number of Latin American cultures have a significant influence in the U.S, which of course, includes music. Latinos are the largest minority group in terms of population with well over 17% of the U.S. population and according to the U.S. Census of July, 2012, number over 53 million.363 Data for 2013 was not available yet as of this writing.

The purpose of this section is not to discuss the music of every Latin American country, but to study the countries that have had a significant impact on the music of the U.S. It’s common for people residing in the U.S. to refer to the country as "America," forgetting that this term refers to anyone living in the western hemisphere from the northernmost tip of Canada to the southernmost part of land at the tip of Tierra del Fuego. When referring to "America" it is proper to refer to which part of America you mean. Mexicans are "Americans" also; as well as Canadians, Cubans, Argentineans, etc.

The musical culture of Latin America varies according to ethnic heritage. Immigrants to Latin America from Europe were mostly Spanish and Portuguese, and since the immigration occurred during times when slavery was practiced, large numbers of Africans were brought over on the slave ships to the Americas. The population of African Americans south of the U.S. border is significantly larger than in the U.S. mainland. There were 11.2 million Africans that we can count who survived the Middle Passage (the journey that took Africans away from their homeland by force) and landed in the New World, and of that 11.2 million, only 450,000 came to the United States.364 The African influence in the musical culture of Latin America is; therefore, quite significant.

The indigenous peoples of Latin America, (Native Americans) have had more influence musically in Latin America because there are still large numbers of people

363 http://www.infoplease.com/spot/hhmcensus1.html 364 http://www.pbs.org/wnet/black-in-latin-america/featured/qa-with-professor-henry-louis-gates- jr/164/

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of Native American descent. In fact, the dominant population of Latin America is Mestizo - a term that refers to anyone with Native American heritage in Latin America, which would typically be mixed with Spanish, Portuguese, or African Americans. Other cultural combinations are naturally present as well. Because of the significant population of Native Americans, and because of 500 years of significant intermingling of cultures, the Native American influence is ever-present in much of Latin American music, and has evolved and changed considerably since the arrival of the Europeans.

The cultural genocide that existed against Native Americans in the U.S. pales by comparison to atrocities committed in Latin America. Despite tremendous population loss, the Native American culture is vibrant and alive, despite older historical accounts that claim; for example that the Mayan, Aztec, and Inca cultures were wiped out. Although the shift of power went to the Europeans, and much of the physical evidence of those civilizations were destroyed, the bulk of the population of the people remained and still remain in those areas, including culture and music. Since Native Americans adhere to the oral tradition south of the border much as they do in the U.S., the perception is that because the writings of history were lost, the culture was lost as well. Any visit to Latin America will prove otherwise, particularly if the traveler ventures away from the cities into the thousands of miles of rural areas.

Flamenco Almost everyone has been enchanted by the soothing style of Spanish guitar playing. The term "Spanish guitar" does not refer to a particular instrument, but rather to a style of acoustic guitar playing that originated in southern Spain (Andalusia) in the early nineteenth century. The style of guitar playing was common in the flamenco groups of the area, which combined folk guitar with classical guitar styles. Classical virtuosos Andrés Segovia (1893-1987) and Carlos Montoya (1903- 1993) have played many songs in the Spanish style.

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Andrés Segovia365

Carlos Montoya366

365 http://pellegrinlowend.com/segoviaa.jpg 366 http://media-2.web.britannica.com/eb-media/93/118493-004-B7E817CD.jpg Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 406

Spanish folk music has been influenced by the Arab, Hindu, Jewish, and Gypsy cultures as well. Of these, the Gypsy influence figures most prominently. The home of Flamenco is defined by a triangle formed by the cities of Córdoba, Sevilla and Cádiz in the south (Andalucía).

367 Although most American and North Europeans think of Flamenco principally as a flamboyant form of dance, in reality it comprises of three elements, the song (el cante), the dance (el baile) and the guitar (el toque), which serves either as an accompaniment to the song and dance or, more recently, as a style itself. While flamenco has become a highly commercial enterprise, it is still a way of life for many and is the natural basis for expressing feelings. It is usually at its best in a spontaneous form not easily achieved in concert halls or festivals.

Flamenco originated among the gypsies of Andalucía over several centuries and probably achieved a concrete form around the end of the 17th century as an unaccompanied song. Much like the blues, flamenco was an expression of poverty,

367 http://www.map-of-spain.co.uk/maps-of-spain/spain/large_map-of-spain2.jpg

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oppression and personal grief. The music incorporated many elements offered by the disparate peoples who had gravitated to the fertile and gentle region of Andalucía, whose name derives from the Moorish term for this area, Al-Andalus. The gypsies themselves came from India in a series of migrations starting around the 12th century. After wandering through central Europe a group of them arrived in Spain early in the 15th century. Others appear to have reached Southern Spain from North Africa later in the same century. They brought with them their own language (now known as Romano or calé) and an oriental-based music. To this day, flamenco clearly shows signs of its oriental origins in the use of non-Western chord structures and progressions. Over the centuries the gypsies incorporated elements from other inhabitants of the region, especially from the Moors and the Jews.

Since the gypsies were largely social outcasts, mistrusted, despised, and subject to special laws and arbitrary treatment, they retained an insular way of life and their music remained quite distinct from the mainstream Spanish folk music. For much of their history, they were unable to own property and worked at menial jobs in agriculture or in the mines. Some used their talents as blacksmiths or jewelers to earn a modest living. At this time flamenco was performed in the home in informal gatherings of close family and friends or occasionally as work songs in the mines and smithies. The cantes (songs) reflected this with their personal nature, expressing the hardships of life and general misery. With their dependence on improvisation, they resemble the blues of African Americans in terms of how much improvisation was used, and how songs could change over time.

In the 18th century the gypsies were acknowledged as having the same legal rights as other Spaniards by King Carlos III, so their circumstances improved somewhat, although even to the present they are frequently mistrusted by many Spaniards. Their independent nature and their tendency to marry “within the tribe” have probably contributed to this attitude. In addition, their poverty has often led to many of them living at the edge of the law. One of their major problems today is both the involvement of gypsies in the drug trade and a high level of drug usage among the younger gypsy population. As the gypsies gained a greater degree of emancipation their financial status improved somewhat, allowing them to acquire musical instruments previously beyond their reach. Thus, the guitar was added as an accompaniment to the singing in the mid 1800’s. Even today, however, a few cantes (martinetes, deblas and carceleras) are sung a palo seco (voice and percussion) or unaccompanied.

In its early form flamenco evolved solely as a personal form of expression, sung in the home for immediate family and friends. The most primitive forms (deblas, martinetes, siguiriyas and soleá) still deal only with unhappiness (death, lost love, hardship). With time flamenco also became a means of expressing happiness as it Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 408

incorporated elements of Spanish music in lighter forms (alegrias, bulerias, and ). The introduction of the guitar and the development of dance accelerated these lighter styles. Then, flamenco song and dance (el cante y el baile) entered the commercial arena as the 20th century arrived.

Initially some artists were hired by rich patrons to sing in juergas (parties). This led to the evolution of professional artists and culminated with the period of cafes cantantes, where flamenco could be heard in public. This evolution also led to changes in the nature of the songs as fads developed for particular types of cante. Many of the more primitive forms languished and some were totally lost while others - especially the fandangos - achieved tremendous popularity.

Growing commercialization continued spasmodically until the 1950’s when the influx of tourists to post-war Spain threatened to water down the art form completely. In part thanks to Antonio Mairena, an excellent singer and gypsy from Mairena Del Alcór, a group of artists (José Menese, Fosforito, El Chocolate, Enrique Morente and El Terremoto de Jerez) rediscovered the older forms and re- established interest in flamenco as an art form as well as a commercial form of music. This process depended in part on memories of older amateur singers such as Juan Talega and Manolo Caracol. The revival of traditional flamenco brought about the establishment of many Festivales de Flamenco during the 1960’s and 70’s. Although some regard these as having stifled the intimacy and spontaneity of flamenco they undoubtedly opened up the art to a wider public and provided opportunities for new artists.

The evolution of flamenco also owes a debt at this same time to the appearance of Paco de Lucía, who along with a few contemporaries developed the guitar along lines that permitted a more lyrical and expanded expression. The left hand was liberated to roam over the whole fretboard and lightning speed developed for both left and right hands. The partnership of Paco de Lucía (often with his brother Ramón de Algeciras) with the young singer El Camarón de la Isla has had a profound effect on the recent evolution.

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Paco de Lucía368 Some of the most noticeable characteristics of this music are that many (but not all) songs are in minor keys, giving a melancholy air to many of the flamenco songs. Scales common in Gypsy and Arab music also have a significant impact in the musical style. The style of guitar strumming in flamenco music is very rhythmic, and the style of dancing that goes with it includes very sensual and dramatic gestures that include rhythms created by foot tapping with the shoes. Castanets, (finger cymbals) also add rhythms.

368 http://www.cataniajazz.com/img/artisti/paco.jpg Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 410

Spoon-shaped clappers called castanets are made from hard wood. Castanets were found in ancient Egypt and made from ivory or bone. In Spain, castanets were carried by dancers in their hands for rhythmic accompaniment. In the orchestra the castanets are attached to a wooden paddle.369

Flamenco singing uses a full-voiced, dramatic style that contains influences from traditional European Opera and the folk and North Africa. The lyrics of flamenco often come from poetry, and themes are most often concerned with love stories and historical events.

The relationship between the artists is similar to that of jazz, in that there is a basic structure that one must follow, but at its heart, it is an improvised form. The singing is the center of the flamenco group. The dancer physically interprets the words and emotion of the singer through his or her movements, which include percussive footwork and intricate hand, arm and body movements. The guitarist provides the accompaniment to the singer and dancer, accentuating his or her vocal lines and/or melodies.

The 1980’s was the era of la movida - an exuberant cultural moment when Spain finally shook off the social strictures of the Franco era—and flamenco entered its second golden era. Led by a new generation of performers, such as Ketama and Pata Negra as well as veterans like Paco de Lucia and Tomatito (both once accompanists for El Camaron), flamenco began incorporating elements of jazz, blues, rock and even reggae into a new fusion sound called nuevo flamenco. Pioneering record label Nuevos Medios developed an alternative distribution

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network that bypassed traditional broadcast outlets and tablaos (places where flamenco shows are performed) in favor of bringing the music directly into bars, nightclubs and discos where younger fans were primed for the new sounds. But in one of music's great ironies, it was the Gypsy Kings—a band of gitanes from Arles, France, playing a parallel style called rumba catalana—who first brought this new flamenco aesthetic to worldwide audiences.

The French Pop-Flamenco Group - The Gipsy Kings370

Today, flamenco continues to thrive and evolve, with young stars such as Estrella Morente and Diego la Cigalla and veterans such as Enrique Morente, Carmen Linares, and Paco de Lucia winning international accolades, while experimental fusion outfits such as Ojos de Brujo and Indialucia push the music's limits.

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With a contradictory voice, at times fiery and at times as tranquil, Estrella Morente has managed to become a leading vocalist of a style that dates back a number of centuries - no small feat for a woman born in 1980.371

The six-piece band, Indialucia created musical atmospheres while reaffirming the Indian sounds and rhythms of flamenco overwhelming, going beyond the geographical and cultural boundaries and made the public aware of something new and never heard. - Corriere Vicentino, July 2011.372

371 http://www.listphile.com/Greatest_Female_Singers/Estrella_Morente 372 http://www.indialucia.com/india_eng.html Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 413

Ottmar Liebert (originally from Germany) has helped to popularize flamenco music mixed with rock and pop elements. Many younger Spaniards, having heard this “fusion flamenco” have become interested in the roots of the music and classical flamenco is booming again.

Ottmar Liebert373

Spanish guitar and flamenco styles have enjoyed tremendous popularity in the U.S., and its influence remains in the areas of Latin America that are most influenced by Spanish musical styles. Countless examples of flamenco may be found in classical, folk, jazz, and popular music.

Argentina Argentines are a fusion of diverse national and ethnic groups, with descendants of Italian and Spanish immigrants predominating. Waves of immigrants from many European countries arrived in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Syrian, Lebanese, and other Middle Eastern immigrants number about 500,000 to 600,000, mainly in urban areas. Argentina's population is overwhelmingly Catholic, but it also has the largest Jewish population in Latin America, estimated at between 280,000 and 300,000. In recent years, there has been a substantial influx of immigrants

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from neighboring countries, particularly Paraguay, Bolivia, and Peru. The indigenous population, estimated at 700,000, is concentrated in the specific provinces of the north, northwest, and south. The Argentine population has one of Latin America's lowest growth rates. Eighty percent of the population resides in cities or towns of more than 2,000, and over one-third lives in the greater area.374

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The Spanish influence in Argentina is quite prominent, and the same is true in the music that comes from this country. Much of Argentina resembles the wild west of the U.S., and since the main language is Spanish, most songs are sung in Spanish. The folk music of Argentina combines Spanish and Native American cultures. From the Native American cultures, one can find a bombo, a large cylindrical drum made from a wooden frame with goat or sheepskin stretched over it. The drum has a medium-low bass sound to its timbre, and generally has a simple, yet important time keeping function in many Argentine and Andes folk groups.

374 http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/26516.htm 375 http://www.lonelyplanet.com/maps/south-america/argentina/ Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 415

The bombo is a drum from Argentina, made of goat skin and wood. Its full name is bombo leguero, and was originally used specifically to play Argentine folk rhythms. One or two drum sticks are used to play the bombo, and the player is usually standing up, holding the instrument with a long cloth strap. The bombo is now played all over South America.376

The main melodic instrument is the quena, a flute made of cane, pumpkin, clay, or metal that may contain from two to eight holes. In some songs two quena players will be used so that they may play the melody in two-part harmony.

376 www.colibrimusic.com/instruments2.html Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 416

Jacaranda wood lends its extraordinary beauty to this quena flute. Crafted by hand, it is a legacy of the Inca, an indispensable instrument in today's traditional Peruvian music. Benito Tito perforates holes of different widths to ensure a sweet sound and tunes it to 440. The mouthpiece is carved from bone and its case emulates pre-Hispanic textiles.377

From the Spanish side, the guitar is very popular in Argentine folk groups and will usually serve an accompanying function to quenas or vocals. Another addition to Argentine and Andean folk music is the charango – a small guitar made from the shell of the armadillo. The sound of this guitar is similar to that of a mandolin.

377 http://musical-instruments.novica.com/wind-instruments/wood-quena-flute-song-of-the- andes/130411/ Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 417

The Charango is a small ten-string lute, which is believed to have originated in Aymara territory (Potosi) in the 17th century. Created after the Spanish conquest, it was influenced by the Spanish vihuela (an ancestor of the guitar). The back of the instrument is traditionally fashioned from the carapace of the armadillo, however today many of the best charangos have wooden backs instead of employing the armadillo shell.378

The Native American influence comes from the Altiplano Indians, and the quena and bombo is representative of that influence. However, the use of the quenas in harmony is a concept that evolved since the arrival of the Europeans. The use of the guitars is definitely of European origin, and the language of the lyrics is typically in Spanish; however, some of the melodies have a strong Native American influence, mainly because the flutes tend to be restricted to melodies that the quenas are capable of creating. Most of these melodies take on a pentatonic (five- tone) character. Since much of Asian music has a similar melodic characteristic, the music of the western part of South America often resembles Asian melodies. Some groups also use violins and small harps as well, and these reflect more of a European influence.

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The Tango Like flamenco music, it is important to remember that dance is an integral part of much of Latin . Many folk songs contain instructions for dance steps, and the dancing and the music are seemingly inseparable. The first major Latin American dance to become popular in the U.S. was the tango. In the early Spanish version of the dance, one person would dance in a small area, often on top of a table. The origin of this dance is also credited to the gauchos (cowboys) of Argentina in the 1880's. The rhythm of the tango came from the habanera, a Cuban dance that was popular in Argentina around 1900. Although the music was Spanish in character, the dance steps themselves actually have an African origin from the Congo.

During the early part of the 19th century, any social dancing with European and American influence was done standing opposite to each other. These types of dances were generically called . The progression of the dancers was somewhat lineal around the dance floor, and contact among the partners was limited to touching the hands at certain moments. The habanera, one of the tango’s ancestors, is also a contradanza. During the second part of the 19th century any close proximity of the bodies in public was considered to be absolutely scandalous! It took many years for people to accept this “close-together” dance!

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The tango became just that. In addition to close proximity for the couples, the dance contained some suggestive sexual gestures, which included dancing close together with navels touching, much to the dismay of many. Although the dance was "Latinized" into a more formal dance atmosphere, the dance created scandals all through Argentina in the first years of the twentieth century. Buenos Aires has numerous areas on the south side nicknamed the "tango district" where the dance and music was performed, and still is today.

Originally, some lyrics were improvised, and were often gaudy in nature, laced with obscenities. Since many songs were about women, tango songs were mostly sung by men. Just as in rhythm and blues in the U.S., as the dance got more popular, the lyrics were tamed down. The name of a most famous tango El Choclo (the corncob) initially had a phallic reference. Men even practiced the tango together in couples, but not in a homosexual manner. It was believed if a man could dance the tango properly, he would be able to win over any woman he wanted. Other lyrical themes in Argentina concerned new immigrants to the country, alcohol-related stories, and how the people pass their time in life.

The tango gradually moved from the bars, brothels, and cafes to dancing houses, then to boarding houses, patios, and ultimately high and middle class Argentine homes. As Argentina had an economic boom between 1880 and 1930, many Argentines visited Europe, particularly Paris, which took a fancy to the tango. Ironically, Americans became fascinated with this dance in Paris through association with Argentines who also visited Paris.

While a slow, stately tempo distinguishes some , others move fairly quickly. There are endless variations to the tango as well. Vernon and Irene Castle, the most famous celebrity dance couple in the U.S. in the second decade of the twentieth century, helped to popularize the tango in addition to the syncopated dances of African American influence mentioned earlier in the text. They brought back the tango from Paris to the U.S., and opened up many dancing schools for people to learn the ballroom dances, including the tango. Consequently, the tango became hugely popular in the U.S. around World War I. Through commercialization, the tango in the U.S. lost many of its Latin American characteristics, and the dance steps became formalized and quite complex. Dancers of the tango were not to show any emotion, and the movement was to be confined to the lower body only, keeping the upper body erect. The Argentine gaucho of 1900 would have had a hard time recognizing the tango danced in the U.S. around 1920!

Since the European influence is strong in Argentina, it is typical that much of the classical music of Europe was present in Argentina as well; mainly the operatic and Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 420

orchestral tradition. Characteristic instruments of the tango are the accordion, guitars, flutes, harps, strings, piano, (and in some cases) the clarinet. Tangos would be played in small groups or full dance orchestras. The melody would often be embellished in a flourishing classical style. Then, the accordion or the piano will improvise within the context of the melody, harmony, through a flowing, classical style typical of 19th century Europe. Many of the musicans read music, yet many learned tangos by ear and improvised to the melody and chords. The larger the group, the more likely that music would be read in a tango orchestra.

The Andes The Andes (meaning "uncertain origin") are the principal mountains of South America and one of the greatest mountain systems of the world. The Andes include some of the world’s highest peaks. More than 50 of them soar higher than 6,100 m (20,000 ft) above sea level. Only the Himalayas of south central Asia are higher. The lofty plateaus and high mountain valleys of the Andes contain some of the highest permanent human settlements in the world. The Andes are the longest system of high mountain ranges on earth. They extend for more than 8000 km (5000 mi) in a narrow belt along the western edge of the South American continent, from the coast of the Caribbean Sea in the north to the island of Tierra del Fuego in the extreme south. Along almost its entire length, the Andes rise abruptly from the Pacific coast. The mountains reach into seven countries: Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina.

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The music of the Andean region has distinctive characteristics that are Native American in nature. Over eight million Andeans speak the Quechua language, and it has recently been recognized as an official language along with Spanish, since attempts to have Spanish be the only "official" language were finally given up as unsuccessful. Many Andean songs are in one of the eleven major dialects of the Quechua language, as it is considered by those who speak Quechua to be a more expressive language than Spanish.

Native Americans can be identified not only through their language, but their dress as well. Identifying characteristics of their dress consists of a poncho, a distinctive and colorful woven hat, and braided hair for the women. Each Native American community is differentiated from others by the distinct patterns woven on their ponchos, or by different hats that indicated their place of origin.

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Typical Andean Clothing381

Long before the Spanish conquest, and even much before the Inca civilization, the diverse native cultures of the region had rich musical traditions. Ancient tombs from the Nasca, Moche, and other cultures have yielded flutes, trumpets, drums, and other musical artifacts. Many ceramic jars found in ancient tombs depict musical instruments being used in various contexts (religion, hunting, dancing) that are difficult to interpret. Music was obviously important in the human and supernatural worlds of ancient Andean people.

Many people associate indigenous Andean instruments to the time of the Inca. Flutes are generically labeled “Inca Pan-Pipes” and the images of Macchu Picchu are conjured up in the imagination. While the Incas certainly employed the instruments we know as “Andean”, it is important to understand that many cultures preceded the Inca dynasty, and with those cultures flourished music and instrumentation that the Incas merely inherited. Tawantinsuyu, the Inca Empire, lasted a mere two hundred and fifty years before its demise at the hands of Spanish invaders. Originally from the Cuzco valley, the Incas expanded rapidly, imposed their language (Quechua) and exacted tribute from their subjects. In little more than two centuries, they stretched as far north as southern Colombia, and as far south as the Rio Maule in southern Chile. Invariably, they introduced styles of music and instruments during their conquests.

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There are a number of major cultures that the Incas would have to give credit to. In the highlands of present day Bolivia are the ruins of Tiawanaku, a culture that was predominantly of the Aymara people. In the coastal regions of Peru, we have the Nazca culture, their artwork often depicting the playing of sikus during religious ceremonies and funerals. Elsewhere, ceramic antaras (likeness of panpipes) were found in gravesites and tombs. Other fabulous cultures included the Moche, the Huari, Chimú and Chavín. Through numerous excavations, archaeologists have proven that the kena (aka quena) was, in its most rudimentary form, a flute that preceded the birth of Christ.

In Pre-Colombian South America, music was a sacred art, a powerful source of communication with the divine world. Religious ceremonies paid homage to the pantheon of deities closely associated with the landscape and weather. The agricultural calendar, such an integral part of daily life, was marked with different celebrations and musical traditions.

Prior to the arrival of Europeans there were no string instruments in the Americas. The Andes were dominated by the sound of winds and percussion. Scales were pentatonic. Many of these traditions survive today in the form of Tarkeadas (Tarka Flutes) Mohoceñadas (Mohoceño flutes) Sikuriadas (Siku flutes) and the dance of the Kena–Kena (Kena flutes). “Traditional” is not soft, melodious or soothing. Rather, it is raucous and loud, bordering on discordant. It almost always includes the playing of large bass drums (italaques and wangaras), snare drums, and at least a dozen flute players employing pipes of different sizes and tunings.

When Europeans first heard this music, they were horrified, believing it to be diabolically inspired, so they decided it must be destroyed. The conquerors did their utmost to eradicate native traditions. Members of the religious clergy felt spiritually obligated to “civilize” them. This included prohibiting the playing of Andean flutes. It was the landscape itself, the magnificent and imposing Andes that saved these traditions from disappearing entirely. The inaccessibility of the land was its salvation. In countries less remote, like Mexico, the conquerors were more successful, and today, there is little left of Pre-Colombian music.

The meeting of Francisco Pizarro and the Inca, Atahualpa, in Cajamarca, Peru, was ostensibly the beginning of the end for the Pre-Colombian era in the Andes. The Spanish conquerors would forever change the Andean world. Through mass conversions and the zeal of Spanish missionaries, a new culture was superimposed upon the indigenous population. The Spaniards brought their music, their language and their instruments, which contained a heavy dose of Moorish flavor as well as European. Natives were introduced to new, exotic instruments: lute, guitar, harp, Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 424

violin, accordion, and mandolin. Later they would be introduced to brass instruments: saxophones, clarinets, trumpets, tubas. Every year at the carnival of Oruro, Bolivia, the vast majority of musical bands employ brass. The song-forms are all Bolivian (saya, , llamarada, doctorcito, kullawada, tinku, , huayño, diablada), but the instrumentation is seldom with bamboo. In Huancayo, Peru, the famous huaynos (aka waynos) are played with saxophones. In Ayacucho, the cherished instruments for Peruvian huaynos are the guitar and charango. These European instruments all form part of the Andean musical tapestry.

Today, Andean music is performed with electronic keyboards and electric guitars, full piece drum sets and electric bass. The popularity of Peruvian “Chicha” music, which combines Andean rhythms and Colombian “”, is a good example of this modern adaptation. This picture clashes with our western, romantic ideal of the indigenous people stuck to the past, wearing traditional clothing and leading what we perceive to be “traditional” lifestyles. People are often surprised to discover that the bamboo woodwinds of Pre-Colombian South America form only a part of current Andean music.382

With the coming of the Spanish conquerors in the sixteenth century, accompanied by Catholic missionaries and African slaves, additional musical languages were introduced. Today, three principal racial and cultural strains - Native, Spanish, and African, are unique in some regions of the Andes and have blended in others to form the racial and cultural amalgams known as Mestizo (primarily Spanish and Native American) and Criollo (people of Spanish descent born in the colonies).

The central Andes are united by several musical/cultural factors. These include patron saint festivals that reveal a fusion of Roman Catholicism and indigenous beliefs; the ever-present wayno dance music and its variants; the Spanish-derived guitar and other European instruments; and since the 1970’s, a "pan-Andean" musical style that has diffused from southern Peru and Bolivia into many of the cities and towns in the central Andes, largely because of tourism.

The native Andes were basically flute and drum oriented. The main winds in ancient times included notched-end kena (quena) flutes of bone (human, llama, and/or pelican), cane, gold, and silver; ocarinas made from clay; and panpipes (antara among the Quechua and siku among the Aymara).

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Ocarinas and Panpipes383

Since the colonial period, native Andean people have played fipple flutes (tubular shape with a whistle mouthpiece that “plugs” into the flute) made of cane or wood (pinquillo). The main drums were the Quechua tinya, a small-frame drum with two heads, and the previously mentioned bombo (a deep-frame drum), also with two heads. Today’s pan-Andean style features kena (quena) flutes, siku panpipes, small charango (armadillo shell) guitars, bombo drums, and sometimes an Andean harp.

The Spanish element began in the sixteenth century, when minstrels, aristocracy, and clergy introduced guitars, harps, mandolins, violins, transverse flutes, pipes- and-tabors, and oboes into the land that they called the Viceroyalty of Peru. Later the brass instruments associated with Western military bands were used. The early Church fathers considered the harp, the violin, and the transverse flute to be the most pure instruments for the accompaniment of Catholic songs and rituals, while the guitar and guitar types, such as the mandolin and the mandolin-like bandurria, were considered too sensual for religious purposes. Thus, they were not taught to the Indians; the guitar became, rather, the instrument of Spanish gentlemen. Nevertheless, the native people of the central Andes adapted the guitar types to their own use by making them smaller and more portable, and by crafting them from the shells of armadillos in Bolivia, because wood is scarce in the high Andes. The charango (discussed and pictured in the section on Argentina) is the

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favorite string instrument of southern Peru and Bolivia. It is used as a solo instrument for courtship, as an accompaniment to singing, and as a member of larger ensembles that often include kena flutes, violins, guitars, drums, and other native and Spanish-derived sound makers.

The music of the Andes expresses the historical and cultural aspects of the native peoples. Many of the songs were developed while working in the fields. Some of the Quechua songs were only to be sung in times of need, and were not to be revealed word for word to anyone else. The Quechua songs represent the survival of oral tradition in the Andes and the lowlands of Ecuador and Peru. The songs come from Quechua poetry, and are about religion, love, general themes, celebration, and humor. Songs often contain dialogue that goes on during the song as well.

On some songs, the use of panpipes is preferred to quenas in the Andes. Other songs incorporate both, or a player who switches back and forth. With panpipes, a series of hollowed out cane or bamboo pipes are strung together. The sound is flute-like, with a distinctive, airy sound, and sound is produced by blowing across the tops of each pipe, producing a single note. Moving the mouth over from one pipe to another is how different notes are played.

The popular "pan-Andean" musical style of today, which was greatly diffused by the popularity of the nueva canción (new song) groups of Chile such as Inti-Illimani and Quilapayún, by the popularity of Los Incas from Peru (who recorded "El Condor Pasa" with Simon and Garfunkle), and Savia Andina and others from Bolivia, is largely a phenomenon of urban folklore, perpetuated through folkloric peñas (coffee houses). Today in the U.S. numerous groups performing and recording Andean music may be found. Three well-known groups are Ñanda Mañachi, Malkuri, and Ecuador Manta. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 427

Ñanda Mañachi performing in the historical section of Quito384

Ñanda Mañachi in Concert385

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Andean ensembles often include Chilean , Venezuelan , Bolivian and Peruvian waynos and Ecuadorian sanjuanitos. The spirit of the music, however, remains a mixture of Native, Spanish, and to a lesser degree, African musical elements.

One of the most popular dances of the Andes is the Yaravi, which is from the Haravi dance of the Incas. It is usually a slow, sad song that is followed by a Wayno, a lively swaying dance. One of the most famous songs from the Andes is El Condor Pasa by Bolivian composer Arlomias Robles, which was borrowed by Simon and Garfunkel, sung in English, and was a pop hit in the early 1970's. The condor is a large vulture that lives high on the peaks of the mountains. The legend goes that when the condor would swoop down on its prey a great wind would follow. In the days of the first king the great condor would speak to him and tell about the secrets of the mountains and valleys.

Today, Andean music is not only performed in the chincherias or cantinas frequented by Quechua speakers, but is also recorded in sound studios and played on the radio. The primary form of popular music, which has evolved from traditional forms, is the wayno, which constitutes a complex blend of poetry, music and dance. It is a rural music, like bluegrass for example, and each region has developed its own characteristic variation. It is typically played in 2/4 time with an insistent, infectious rhythm; the dance is usually performed by couples, their hands joined, with much stamping of feet to cries of “Mas fuerza, mas fuerza,” or “Stronger, stronger!”

The African influence in Andean music cannot be overlooked. Black slaves came to South America from different parts of Africa; thus their music became a mixture of these different regional forms. Gradually African music blended with Andean and Spanish rhythms, to emerge as musica . Dance grew up alongside Afro- Andean music. In Peru, for example, the , an African dance, stands as the precursor of the stately and elegant , which has become the national dance. Travelers may stumble across one of the frequent marinera dance competitions. The Festival de la Marinera in January is the biggest one. Chincha’s Fiesta Negra in February is a good time to hear all kinds of Afro-Peruvian music.

Bolivia’s national dance is the , derived from the Chilean cueca (also their national dance), which in turn is a Creole adaptation of the Spanish . Couples wave whirling handkerchiefs to 3/4 time. Cuecas are intended to convey a story of courtship, love, loss of love, and reconciliation. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 429

This dance mimics the courtship of a chicken and rooster. The handkerchiefs you can see to the right symbolize feathers. La Cueca is danced in a circle. The woman has her half of the circle and the man has his. They then dance around each other in half circles or making a full circle. The hankerchiefs are twirled above the head at various moments throughout the dance. 386

Some of the most unusual and colorful dances are those performed at festivals on the high Altiplano, particularly during Carnival. La Diablada, (the Dance of the Devils) fiesta at Oruro draws a large number of both foreign and Bolivian visitors. Those traveling through the Andean region of South America are sure to hear traditional music playing, perhaps as accompaniment while dining in a four-star restaurant, or while relaxing at a local peña, (a musica folklorica club) which is the most typical nightlife in Peru and Ecuador. This is a popular form of entertainment for a variety of people, from government officials to campesinos (poor or rural people).387

So far we have looked at two significant genres from South America – the Spanish- influenced tango with a touch of African dancing, and the Native American- influenced Andean music. Both of these styles are common in the U.S. today.

386 http://latindancehistory.wordpress.com/2010/11/30/la-cueca/ 387 http://www.adventure-life.com/articles/andean-music-dance-54/

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Brazil

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Brazil’s musical impact on the U.S. is second only to that of Cuba. The largest of the South American countries, Brazil is 9/10ths the size of the U.S. in square miles. Brazil is a first and a third world country, possessing great wealth and poverty simultaneously. In 1494 with the Treaty of Tordesillas the Spanish ceded nearly all of Brazil to the Portuguese in a treaty that stands out as one of the greatest blunders of all time, for the Spanish were not yet aware of the great riches of Brazil when the treaty was signed. Brazil was a colony of Portugal until Brazil declared its independence in 1822. With this long history of colonization, the official language of Brazil is Portuguese.

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Native American Origins Much of the original Native American population of Brazil was decimated or enslaved in the early years, resulting in a substantial loss of culture. The remaining survivors were able to keep their culture alive primarily through geographical isolation in the Amazon Basin. Today, their very existence is being constantly threatened by loggers decimating the forests for the promise of good money, with no regard for the destruction of culture and ecosystems. There were once two million Native Americans in the middle of the 16th century, but by the 1980's the population had dropped to approximately 200,000. Then, between 1991 and 2000, the number of Indians and their offspring rose 150%, nearly six times faster than the general rate of population increase. In 2010 the indigenous population (or at least those claiming that ancestry) totaled 817,000.

According to IBGE (the Brazilian Government’s Statistical Beauru), president Eduardo Pereira Nunes, the study "eliminates once and for all the possibility of extinction" for the country's Indians, a prediction that was common until the 1970's. He states the survey confirms the end of individuals' reluctance to admit their origins. Nunes claims that government policies have contributed to the recovery of Indian traits: "The demarcation of Indian lands begun in the 1980's, the extension of health and educational services, and, more recently, the assurance of places in universities (a policy also adopted by some companies) are encouraging people to recognize themselves as descendants of Indians."389

The African Diaspora in Brazil As in most countries of the Americas, the African Diaspora in Brazil involved the coerced migration of Africans through the transatlantic slave trade. Brazil was the principal destination for Africans sold as slaves across the Atlantic. Recent estimates are that Brazil alone received about five million slaves between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries, almost half of the total number of slaves carried across the Atlantic.

The slave trade was exploited to produce sugar, coffee and mine gold. In 1822, Brazil gained independence from Portugal, but continued to participate in the transatlantic slave trade until 1850, when it permanently closed the ports for all vessels carrying slaves from Africa. Brazil has a long history of involvement in the slave trade and, as a consequence, the African Diaspora largely shaped the formation of Brazilian culture and society.390

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A 2009 press release reveals the following statistic:

Black population becomes the majority in Brazil Brazil and its population of almost 200 million is no longer a country of white majority. The credit now belongs to the 49.6% black or mulatto population compared to the 49.4% defined as white and this is set to increase in coming years with that percentage increasing to 54, according to a recent report from the Rio do Janeiro Federal University.391

With the great number of people of mixed blood (Portuguese, African American, Spanish, and Indian), it is likely that people of mixed origins actually comprise the largest ethnic group in Brazil based on the fact that people of mixed origins do not fit into one simple racial category, as census data with restricting questions would indicate. Another likely speculation is that more people of color are declaring their ethnicity today, overriding past taboos or fear of reprisals.

Although slavery "officially" ended in the relatively late date of 1888 (38 years after the transatlantic trade was halted), there are fewer social barriers between races than in the U.S. and England. Prejudice remains, but due to the many mixtures of people in Brazil, the color barrier is more economic than social.

To a degree unequaled in most of the American colonies, the Portuguese settlers frequently intermarried with both the Indians and the African slaves, and there were also mixed marriages between the Africans and Indians. As a result, Brazil's population is intermingled to a degree that is unseen elsewhere. Most Brazilians possess some combination of European, African, Amerindian, Asian, and Middle Eastern lineage, and this multiplicity of cultural legacies is a notable feature of current Brazilian culture.392

Africanisms in culture and music survived in a purer form than in the U.S. Because of the large numbers of slaves brought to Brazil, wholesale abandonment of the dreaded plantation life went unimpeded. Huge colonies of runaway slaves, called quilombos, formed in the interior portions of Brazil. Some of these colonies numbered over 20,000, and organized societies based on African traditions and religion formed. While these colonies were primarily a pre-19th century phenomenon, it kept African religious practices in use with only slow changes over hundreds of years in the Americas.

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Macumba Macumba is an Afro-Brazilian religion that is characterized by a marked syncretism of traditional African religions, European culture, Brazilian Spiritualism, and Roman Catholicism.393 Also known as Quimbanda, Macumba is the everyday term used by Brazilians in Rio de Janeiro to describe two types of African spirit worship: Candomblé (followed in northern State of Bahia) and Umbanda (a newer form originating in Niteroi, in the southern State of Rio de Janeiro.394 Candomblé, practiced in Bahia state, is considered to be the most African of the Macumba sects. Umbanda, practiced in urban areas such as Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, is more sophisticated and reflects Hindu and Buddhist influence; its appeal has spread to the white middle class. Despite attempts by Christian churches to combat them, Macumba sects continue to flourish throughout Brazil.395

As in Caribbean countries like Cuba and Haiti, Gods (called Orixes) were worshipped secretly behind Catholic ceremonies, meaning that the religions were Catholic on the surface (for fear of death or persecution), and purely African underneath. Followers usually worship one female and one male Orixe, much like Christians would pray to the Virgin Mary and Jesus. In these religions ceremonies, music is an integral part, and include drums, numerous percussion instruments, vocals, and dancing. For the most part, the music remained African in nature; however, the music did evolve over hundreds of years to become Afro-Brazilian, meaning that the music is no longer exactly like African music.

In African religions, the concept of spirit possession is common, and hoped for. In many Christian churches, it is quite desirable to be “possessed” by the Holy Spirit (God). With African-based religions, this possession is to be not only mental, but physical as well, and the music is designed to help bring this holy possession about. Candomblé features hours of drumming, singing, and dancing in order to receive the blessings of the good spirits that are manifestations of God. Rum and other gifts are offered in a ceremonial manner, and, much like communion in Christianity, the blood of Christ (the Holy Spirit) is shared as well. In this way, red wine is not used, but the blood of an animal, such as a chicken or goat, is used on certain ceremonial days. The animal is always well cared for until it is time for the ceremony. After the ceremony, the animal is invariably cooked and consumed in a feast, which is no different than a typical day in Brazil, for grocery stores in many rural areas are few and far between, and animals must be killed for food anyway.

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In early writings, African-based religious ceremonies have often been described by outsiders as "wild orgies of sex, booze, dancing, and cannibalism". Those who were quick to condemn African religions usually knew nothing about them, and certainly were not aware of the nearly complete absence of crime in the traditional, rural African American communities. History reveals it is never wise to claim that one’s religion is superior to another; especially as a justification for the extraordinary persecution and murder that people of African-based religions have suffered in the western hemisphere. Despite one’s personal beliefs, it is far more righteous to have an understanding and respect for all religions, regardless of race or geographical origins. Those who seriously study many religions are quick to point out that the religions of the world and their prophets all have great wisdom to offer, and often that wisdom is remarkably similar!

A Candomblé Ceremony396

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The sacred rhythms and drums of Macumba have been the driving force behind the African-based music that evolved in Brazil. The same process occurred in the U.S. In Brazil, these rhythms were significant in the development of the first major Brazilian style to influence the U.S. – the samba, often nicknamed “the rhythm of the saints”.

Origin of the Samba The dances from Brazil have an erotic reputation. The lundu song, a dance of the circle where the navels touch (called the umbigada movement) gradually transformed into a dance called the maxixe by the late 19th century. Originating in Rio de Janeiro, the maxixe was the first Brazilian dance to become widely known. The maxixe was a cross between the lundu, habanera, tango, and the polka. Like the tango further south, the maxixe developed a scandalous reputation!

Although the maxixe was the first Brazilian dance, the two most significant Brazilian musical styles incorporated in the U.S. were the samba and bossa nova. Since the bossa nova was a later derivation and alteration of the samba, we’ll begin with a discussion of samba.

The samba style formed in Rio de Janeiro, but its origin has been traced to Angola (Africa), and refers to the umbigada (naval touching). This dance movement literally defined what samba means - an "invitation to the dance." Faster than the maxixe, the samba originated as urban-based carnival music for the massive pre - Lenten celebration throughout Rio.

Samba in its pure form migrated to the morros (hills) on the outskirts of Rio where the favelas (slums) were located. A favela is a term for a shanty town in Brazil. The name comes from a tree commonly found on the side of hills in sub-tropical regions named the favela tree. As favelas are also often found on the sides of hills, the slang term favela was formed. In the late 18th century, the first settlements were called bairros africanos (African neighborhoods), and they were Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 436

the place where former slaves with no land ownership and no options for work lived. Over the years, many freed black slaves moved in. However, before the first favelas came into being, poor blacks were pushed away from downtown into the far suburbs. Most favelas appeared in the 1970’s due to rural , when many left rural areas of Brazil and moved to the cities. Without finding a place to live, many people ended up in a favela.397

Carnival Carnivals used to be very rowdy affairs in the 19th century Portuguese tradition. During the pre-Lenten celebrations, the social order was turned upside down and mocked to the point where riots would break out. In 1899, Chiquinha Gonzaga was asked to write a song for a carnival, and the song was called "O Abre Alas," which means "Make Way!" The song was a marcha (which is much like a march). Since then, marchas and sambas have dominated carnival music in Brazil. Despite the strong black influence of the samba, blacks were not allowed to celebrate in the carnival until 1935.

After a number of years of samba bands playing in carnivals, schools of samba music formed called Escolas de sambas. They became an integral part of samba, and required a rigid musical test to enter. Each samba school would pick a parade theme related to Brazilian historical events, tributes to major figures, or political affairs. In the carnival parade, each of the schools marched in separate units called alas. The first alas would be the older ladies dressed in Bahian style, with turbans and long laced dresses. The next alas would consist of “important people” (v.i.p.’s). There would numerous floats between each alas. In the next alas the singers follow the puxador, or lead singer, whose job is to keep them with the next

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alas, which are all of the percussionists. Some units consisted of over 1,000 singers and over 300 percussionists. Some samba schools march over 5.000 members, and a few have over 7,000, making it a truly massive sound!

Bright and very elaborate costumes are expected, although due to the year-round warm weather, some carnival costumes are very scant. Each of the samba schools would enter highly competitive contests during carnival and prizes involve big money.

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As the samba developed in the late 1920's and 1930's, it became more middle and upper class, and became known as samba cancão. By the 1950's, the samba cancão was further watered down by beats of other less rhythmic Latin American dances and ballroom dances such as the , cha cha chá, and fox trot; becoming so commercialized as to be scarcely recognizable. One example of commercialization was when composer Ary Barroso's "Brazil" (arguably the most popular samba song of all time) was used in Walt Disney cartoons. Despite worldwide popularity, the samba from the morros remained the most popular form of samba throughout Brazil. Currently, there are over 100 registered samba schools in Rio alone! The Rio carnival, although incredible to behold, has bothered traditionalists due to its

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current extensive commercialism, yet, unlike the Rose parade in Pasadena, California, it is still run by local community interests as opposed to outside corporate interests.

A term used to describe samba in its pure form was saudade, often reflected in the lyrics to samba:

The famous saudade of the Portuguese is a vague and constant desire for something that does not and probably cannot exist, for something other than the present, a turning towards the past or towards the future; not an active discontent or poignant sadness but an indolent dreaming wistfulness." (In Portugal, by A.F.G Bell, 1912)

Saudade is not “nostalgia”. In nostalgia, one has a mixed happy and sad feeling, a memory of happiness, but also a sadness for its impossible return and sole existence in the past. Saudade is like nostalgia but with the hope that what is being longed for might return, even if that return is unlikely or so distant in the future to be almost of no consequence to the present.399

The Batería What makes the samba particularly significant to the U.S. is the percussion battery used, and the rhythms that go with it. The Batería, or battery of percussion players used in samba have African origins, but have evolved in Brazil distinctly over hundreds of years to become what it is in the 21st century. The typical instruments of the batería are:

Surdo bass drum Caixa snare drum Repique medium sized hand drum Repinique A skinnier, double-headed version of the Repique Chocalho shaker Tamborim very small hand drum Cuíca bamboo stick inside drum fastened to drum head Agogô 2 small cone shaped cowbells Reco-Reco scraper Pandeiro tamborine Apito whistle Caixeta wood block Pratos marching cymbals Atabaque Brazilian Drum Bongos 2 small Cuban hand drums

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Surdo de primeira (First surdo) This is the largest surdo (bass drum), the one that gives the crucial marcação [the second, stronger beat] to the samba. It’s the one that gives the primary beat everyone concentrates on. The singers are guided by this surdo so as not to speed up or slow down. In general, there is a surdo de primeira right next to the principal singers as a guide. It has a higher tone, a stronger tuning than the surdos de resposta (the responding bass drums, second and third surdos). A large bateria has from 8 to 10 big surdos.

This double-headed bass drum is perhaps the most recognizable of all of the samba instruments, with its deep 'doom' sound providing the fundamental beat of the samba rhythm. The surdo is played with a soft-headed mallet and a bare hand (to dampen the head and change the pitch of the drum), or with two mallets (as in and other styles from the north-east of Brazil). The word surdo literally means 'deaf' and it is the heart-beat of the bateria.

Surdo de segunda (Second surdo) This is the response to the surdo de primeira. It sustains the samba rhythm while the surdo de primeira is at rest [in equal note values]; it’s the counterpoint. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 440

Surdo de terceira (Third surdo) It chimes in between the other two (a little before the surdo de segunda). It gives a special sauciness to the cadence, breaking through the rigidity of the other two surdos, and a swing to the rhythm. The beat varies from school to school, but each one has its own way of adding the third surdo, sometimes called the surdo de corte.

Caixa de guerra (Snare drum of war) This is what gives character to the samba. Only through the sound of the caixa can you really identify a certain school. It’s always played with two sticks, and has two cords [snares] across the drumhead that gives it a different kind of tone. It sets the tempo, but allows flourishes that can’t happen in the surdos. The way you play the caixa also varies from school to school: in some the player puts the drum at waist level, playing with two hands; others place the caixa higher, using one hand as a support and the other free. A Tarol (on the right) is a smaller snare drum, and the sound and size are equivalent to the so-called meia caixa [half snare].

Caiza de Guerra Tarol

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Repique The repique [this drum is about 12”x14”] is the king in the paradinhas (the breaking of the regular rhythm) and turns of the samba. It’s the signal for the return of the other instruments. In the past, the repique dominated the paradinhas. These days, shakers and other small drums [tamborim] are allowed while the rest of the bateria stays silent.

Repique Repinique

Repinique This is similar to the repique, but with two skinnier drum heads, but the function is about the same. In schools like Salgueiro, Unidos da Tijuca, Vila Isabel, Estácio de Sá e Mangueira, the sound of the repique is prevalent. The Portela, Tradição, and Caprichosos e Mocidade samba schools highlight the repinique.

Chocalho It’s made up of several rows of jingles [formerly bottle caps]. There are chocalhos with two, three, four five and even six rows of jingles. There is not a big difference in the sound of chocalhos based on the number of rows, but a larger number of rows create a stronger sound. This instrument appears more in the of the samba, and there can be entire passages without being heard. The chocalho helps the caixa give the swing to the samba, but it’s lighter.

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Chocalho

Tamborim [plural, tamborins] The tamborins give the punch and the shape to the samba. While the surdos and the caixas provide the continuing rhythm, the tamborins add a yummy texture to the samba. The stick can be single-ended, or branch into multiple ends, each style with a different sound. The tamborim section usually has its own director.

Tamborim

Cuíca The sound of the cuíca is produced by a small stick on the inside of the drum, attached to the drum head which is very tightly tuned. Its rhythm depends on the beat of the surdos, which it follows. The principle is much like moving a straw through a plastic cup, only much louder!

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Cuica

Agogô [Double cowbell sounding two different notes] The agogô has one of the highest tones of the bateria. The samba school Império Serrano is famous for its agogô section; it’s a stamp of the school and consists of more than 50 agogôs.

Agogô

Reco-reco [Scraper] This is a notched shaft and a piece of wood or metal that produces sound from the friction when the stick is scraped across the notches. Some schools don’t use the reco-reco anymore, but some still do. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 444

Reco-reco [Scraper]

Pandeiro [tambourine] Many schools have abolished the pandeiro [very much like a tambourine] from the bateria. It’s used as a prop by some percussionists who play it—with great inspiration—to aid the women samba dancers with their intricate samba steps.

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Following is a chart reproduced from the book Memorias do Carnaval published in Rio many years ago. It shows more or less how the 200+ members of the bateria march in the parade, usually starting with the lighter instruments...the heavy surdos are in the middle for stability. The whistles indicate the various Directors who help coordinate the musicians and keep everyone together.

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A segment of the Mocidade Independente de Padre Miguel400

Samba music was not restricted to carnival. When one hears the rhythms of these instruments, with one stacked upon another, each doing a rhythm that conforms to its specific role, varying from simple to complex, the resulting sound is memorable. To add to the complexity, instruments and voices are usually added to the batería as well. The samba has a tropical march-like quality in a fast duple meter, with a syncopated "oom-pah" in the bass. The rhythms of the batería are complex, and horn lines and vocal melodies can range from simple to complex. To compensate for that, the harmonies of the samba are traditionally quite simple. After the 1950's, some sambas would take on jazz influences, particularly in the U.S., and the harmonies of these jazz-influenced sambas could be complex as well. The influence of the batería took the U.S. by storm, and together with the Cuban influence, created a large number of jazz and rock groups that incorporated Brazilian and/or Cuban percussion into their music. Other traditional Brazilian styles of music are:

Samba Batucada A very old dance with a samba rhythm

Choro Urban dance, old-style samba with instrumental improvisation

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Maracatú Afro-Brazilian music with Indian origins, a procession dance at carnivals celebrating the crowning of the chief of a tribe

Lambada A Brazilian-derived sensual, gyrating dance where scantily-clad dancers press against each other and move their hips in sync. It enjoyed a brief, but very popular surge in Latin America, the U.S., and Europe in the late 1980’s.

Capoeira Capoeira is a martial arts practiced in northeastern Brazil. Music is one of the most important elements in the art, responsible for creating the atmosphere in which Capoeira is most beautifully expressed. Music is used to inspire the players to more intense level of interaction, and it is used to calm them down when the game has become too heated.

The berimbau (originally an African instrument) is the most important musical instrument. It is a musical bow with one string. With its hypnotic, twangy sound, the berimbau is considered "the soul of capoeira". Parts and accessories of the berimbau: Verga: Wooden bow that makes up the main body of the berimbau. Arame: Steel string. Cabaça: Opened, dried and hollowed out gourd-like fruit secured to the lower portion of the berimbau, used to amplify and resonate the sound. Pedra or Dobrão: Small stone or coin pressed against the arame to change the tone of the berimbau. Baqueta: (aka vaqueta) Small, thin, flexible stick struck against the arame to produce the sound. Caxixí: Small rattle that optionally accompanies the baqueta in the same hand that holds the vaqueta.

There are three categories of berimbau: Gunga (lowest tone), Médio (medium tone), and Viola (highest tone).401

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In traditional Capoeira Angola schools, there is a specific location for each instrument in the ensemble. Facing the musicians one would see (from left to right): a ganza or reco-reco (a section of bamboo or gourd with notches cut in it played by scraping with a thin stick), an agogo, (a double-headed bell that is struck with a stick or thin metal rod); a pandeiro, (tambourine) a berimbau-gunga, (the berimbau with the largest gourd and the one that maintains the rhythm), a berimbau-centro, (the berimbau with a mid-sized gourd and one that also maintains the rhythm) a berimbau-viola, (the smallest berimbau and the one that "speaks" i.e. improvises the rhythms) a pandeiro, (another tambourine) and an atabaque, (a drum that is played with the hands similar to a conga drum). The dominant instruments are the three berimbaus; no other instrument should be played louder than them. There is also an order to the types and use of songs. In all, music is one of the most enriching aspects of Capoeira.

The Atabaque is a tall, wooden, Afro-Brazilian hand drum. The shell is made traditionally of Jacaranda wood from Brazil. The head is traditionally made from calfskin. A system of ropes is intertwined around the body, connecting a metal ring near the base to the head. Wooden wedges are jammed between this ring and the body and one uses a hammer to tighten or loosen the ropes, raising or lowering the pitch of the drum.402

The ritual of Capoeira begins when two players enter the circle and squat at the foot of the berimbau. One player will sing a ladainha, a ritual song of commencement. If his opponent doesn't respond with a song of his own, he will begin another song, () a song for going out to play. The song is then passed on to one of the musicians as the jogo-de-Capoeira begins.

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A Capoeira game is characterized by such dynamic movements as cartwheels, handstands, spinning kicks and spontaneous acrobatics. At its highest level of practice, Capoeira is considered an improvisational conversation between two bodies. The operative sensibility is very similar to a jazz performance. Capoeira scholar Ken Dossar writes:

The object of the game is for the capoeiristas to use finesse, guile, and techniques to maneuver one another into a defenseless position, rendering them open to a blow, or sweep. Only one’s hands, head and feet are allowed to touch the floor. Being swept and landing on ones bottom disqualifies a player. In general, there is no contact from strikes. An implied strike is more admired, particularly when the opponent has been clearly manipulated into an indefensible position...All strikes, evasions, and counterstrikes are woven together creatively as the game progresses. The freedom to improvise and create openings keeps Capoeira's action fluid and fresh.

There is little use of offensive hand techniques in Capoeira. Some have attributed this to the belief that slaves had to fight with their hands immobilized by chains and therefore emphasized foot and leg techniques. It is more likely, however; that the absence of hand techniques is based on an ancient Congo tradition in which the hands should be used for good work, i.e., creative activities, while the feet should be used for bad work, i.e., punishment and destruction. Fu-Kiau explained one relevant proverb in kikongo (Bantu) "Mooko mu tunga, malu mu diatikisa" (Hands are to build, feet are to destroy).

At times a vocalist might be there, or possibly a cavaquinho, a small 4 stringed instrument resembling a ukulele.

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Today, some of the Capoeira songs have been modernized, incorporating a full rhythm section - electric guitar, bass, keyboards, vocalists, and horns. Unquestionably, the sound is very exciting, rhythmic, and samba-influenced.

404 Capoeira requires tremendous agility

Contemporary Samba Listed are some of the most significant musicians of the samba: Clara Nunes Vocalist, 1st to sell 500,000 records Alcione International star Beth Carvalho Sang about human rights, popularized pagode samba José Ferreira Singer, songwriter of older samba style Bezerra da Silva Songwriter about deep favela problems and prejudice Roberto Ribeiro Vocalist João Nogueira Songwriter Nei Lopes Songwriter Wilson Moreira Songwriter

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Vocalist Clara Nunes 405 Vocalist and Trumpet Star Alcione406

In the late 1980’s pagode samba, a new samba sub-genre punctuated by the banjo and percussion, would be a response to the lack of samba in the 1980’s, which had no space to blossom except for the composers’ backyards in the form of parties that featured samba. The first solo albums by pagode composers projected Zeca Pagodinho, Almir Guineto, Jovelina Pérola Negra and the group Fundo de Quintal. From Pernambuco (an eastern state), Bezerra da Silva would imprint his gangsta sambas in the same period. Lyrical themes generally center on love, often with a sense of humor.

The label pagode would also be used on the following decade to describe a type of pop-samba inspired in romantic ballads, which would generate the emergence of numerous clones more or less related to the samba roots: Raça Negra, Negritude Jr., Art Popular and Só Pra Contrariar. The main ingredient, though, has survived, fed by the revitalization of old school masters still in activity, like Nelson Sargento, Monarco, Noca da Portela, Wilson das Neves, Walter Alfaiate, as well as Old School Portela and Mangueira and the persistent activists Nei Lopes, Luis Carlos da Vila and Wilson Moreira. Like rock music in the U.S., samba has proliferated into numerous sub-genres, each with a local origin and combination of music that combines samba with one or more other kinds of music. Certainly the effect of samba in the U.S. itself on jazz, rock, and hip hop is paramount.

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Bossa Nova The bossa nova, which translates to mean "new touch" or "new way", represented a different approach to samba - one that was relaxed and slowed down rhythmically. The harmonic complexity of the middle and upper class samba cancão was present, while the lyrics of the bossa nova tended to reflect daily life, down to earth situations, and casual urban living. Bossa composers tended to use classical and African influences, with a penchant for unusual harmonies that went in unpredictable directions, much like jazz composer Thelonius Monk.

One of the originators of the bossa nova, João Gilberto, was a guitarist who sang in a whispering style and played acoustic guitar with a soft, relaxing sound compared to the energetic samba. One of his hit songs, “Desafinado” (slightly out of tune) written in 1958, was an ironic reply to critics who called the bossa nova "music for off-key singers." Other bossa nova composers Luis Bonfá, Vinecius de Moraes and the famous Antonio Carlos Jobím, who wrote in this "new" style for the 1959 movie Black Orpheus, which set the music on an international course.

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The Award-Winning Film Black Orpheus407

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Antonio Carlos Jobím by far received the greatest exposure of all composers of this genre. Jobím’s songs are still commonly heard today, and are in the repertoire of any jazz musician who plays standards. Like most popular music, his songs have been overly commercialized to the point where such unique hits as “The Girl from Ipanema”, “Meditation”, and “Quiet Nights of Quiet Stars” (Corcovado) have been reduced to music for elevators, television commercials, or humorous insertions in later movies – a far cry from their initial innovative sound.

408 Antonio Carlos Jobím

João Gilberto's restless style of guitar strumming and smooth voice with no vibrato culminated in his 1959 album Chega de Saudade. This style, already popular in Brazil, began to have a considerable influence in the U.S., particularly with jazz musicians. In 1962, guitarist Charlie Byrd and tenor saxophonist Stan Getz did the album Jazz Samba in Brazil, performing hits by Brazilian composers. The album turned out to be quite popular in the U.S. Meanwhile, João Gilberto's wife Astrud began singing with his group. Her vocal style was soft, understated, contained practically no vibrato and, she could sing in English or Portuguese. In both languages, she sang in a very conversational manner, as if she was talking to the listener as opposed to singing. Her voice, added to João Gilberto's group, which also featured Stan Getz for a while, became a very defining and influential group of this style. Astrud Gilberto helped popularize the vocal style of her husband much

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further than her husband did, to the point to where her vocal style and moderately low alto range became a frequently used model not only for bossa novas, but for many aspects of jazz and popular music as well.

Joao Gilberto and his wife, Astrud on the beach409

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The Girl From Ipanema “The Girl From Ipanema” (A.C. Jobím) with lyrics by Vinecius de Moraes, had an impact in the U.S. and around the world that deserves special attention:

It's a song of sensuality that entices men everywhere to dream. It evokes the fantasy of an exotic beach where warm waves kiss the shore, where breezes whisper through the palms, and where there is a woman, a dream woman, an ideal woman who embodies the elusive essence of everything that is desirable.

“The Girl from Ipanema” was awarded the 1964 Grammy as Best Song of the Year, it ranks 21st on BMI's list of most performed songs of all time, and is one of the most recorded songs in history, having been vocalized by Astrid Gilberto, Stan Getz, Frank Sinatra, Ella Fitzgerald, Madonna, Cher, and many others. While its credentials are impressive, the real fascination is the story behind the song and the girl who inspired it.

Ipanema is a trendy, rather artsy neighborhood in south Rio de Janeiro. To the west is the upscale area of Leblon and to the east is Aproador and Copacabana. A block off Ipanema Beach, on the northwest corner of Rua Montenegro and Rua Prudente de Moraes was Tom Jobim's favorite hang-out, the Bar Veloso. A veranda-style, open-air cafe, this was the place to drink beer, smoke cigarettes, read the paper, chat with friends, and watch the pretty girls.

Almost every day a certain girl passed by the Veloso. Often in her school uniform, sometimes in her two-piece bathing suit she was, of course, tall, and tan, and young and lovely with long brown hair and green eyes and a rather sensual way of swaying her hips. She did not go unnoticed by Jobim and friends who often greeted her with whistles and cat-calls. The girl, however, never responded to the men. Never did she stop to talk; indeed never did she even make eye contact with bar’s patrons. Each day when she walked to the sea, she looked straight ahead, not at anyone else. And Jobim was in love.

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Basically a shy man, Jobim was afraid to approach the girl. At the time he was married with two children and knew he had to be at least twice her age, but that did not prevent a budding infatuation. Eventually he convinced his old lyricist buddy Vinicius de Moraes to come by the Veloso to see this girl. After several days of waiting the girl finally walked past. Jobim remarked “"Nao a coisa mais linda?" (Isn't she the prettiest thing?), to which de Moraes replied, "E a coisa cheia de gracia." (She's full of grace.). This sparked the creativity in de Moraes who wrote those two lines on a napkin. The lines provided the basis for the opening two lines of the original, Portuguese version of A Garota de Ipanema (The Girl from Ipanema).411

The popularity of "Girl From Ipanema" has inspired many tourists to visit the real location in 412 Rio de Janeiro for more than 40 years.

411 http://stan-shepkowski.net/girlfromipanema.htm 412 http://imgs.sfgate.com/c/pictures/2007/09/30/tr_ipanema03.jpg

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The Girl From Ipanema

Tall and tan and young and lovely The girl from Ipanema goes walking And when she passes Each one she passes goes, "Ahhh..." When she walks she's like a samba That swings so cool and sways so gently That when she passes Each one she passes goes, "Ahhh..." Oh, but he watches so sadly How can he tell her he loves her Yes he would give his heart gladly But each day when she walks to the sea She looks straight ahead not at he Tall and tan and young and lovely The girl from Ipanema goes walking And when she passes he smiles But she doesn't see.

English lyrics by Norman Gimbel, original Portuguese by Vinicius de Moraes

Bossa groups tended to use American jazz instrumentation of vocal, guitar and/or piano, upright bass, drum set, and sometimes a sax player. Flute also became a popular instrument for bossa novas. Jazz flutist Herbie Mann did bossa nova albums, and Frank Sinatra did an album in collaboration with Antonio Carlos Jobím.

Another musician who helped to further popularize the bossa nova and other Brazilian styles was Sergio Mendes. His first album Do the Bossa Nova was done in 1962, and he later formed a group called Sergio Mendes and Brasil '66, which proved to be quite popular, influencing vocal jazz styles for larger vocal groups in that vocal jazz groups follow the trademark cool, sometimes breathy sound with very little vibrato. Through creative arrangements and good singers, Mendes transformed the subdued solo style of Gilberto and others into a commercially popular Brazilian music that left its mark in the U.S.

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As the 1960's developed, some bossa novas became political in Brazil, and came under heavy government repression. Bossa nova’s reactionary sound became less in favor in Brazil from the middle 1960’s on, as traditional Brazilian music combined with music (both jazz and rock) from the U.S. and the rest of the world. Modern instruments such as the electric guitar, electric keyboards/synthesizers, electric bass, and drum set were added to this musical phenomenon, nicknamed tropicalismo.

MPB Beginning with the 1970’s, the larger term applied to this blend is MPB - Musica Popular Brasiliera, (popular music of Brazil). Luis Gonzaga, Elis Regina, and DJavan have enjoyed great popularity. Gonzaga tends to use the most traditional music of the three, while Regina is by far the most influenced by jazz. DJavan uses American and Brazilian pop elements in a music that uses political messages in some songs, sung in Portuguese and/or English.

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Luis Gonzaga 414 Elis Regina415

Djavan416

Caetano Veloso, the most literate and daring of the tropicalistas, expanded the horizons of Brazilian music by turning it into a highly personal experience. Milton Nascimento coined a hybrid style that combined elements of pop, samba and jazz with progressive-rock arrangements. Egberto Gismonti fused European classical music, jazz-rock and Brazilian choro. Other famous MPB musician/songwriters were Gilberto Gil, Chico Buarque, Gal Costa, and Maria Bethania. In the U.S. jazz world, Brazilian percussionist Airto Moreira, Argentine tenor saxophonist Barbieri, and vocalist Flora Purim have been very influential in bringing Brazilian musical styles to jazz.

414 http://davidbyrne.typepad.com/photos/uncategorized/9_16_06_a_luis_gonzaga.jpg 415 http://assets.mog.com/pictures/wikipedia/336375/Elis_regina.jpg 416 http://www.africanidade.com/content_images/5/Djavan1.jpg

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MPB's capital continues to be Salvador, where artists like Virginia Rodrigues and Silvia Torres help keep the region a hotbed of musical innovation. In the final three decades of the 20th century, reggae, salsa and samba rhythms mixed to form a type of dance music called fricote. Stars like Abel Duere, Margareth Menezes and Daniela Mercury became international stars, alongside bands like Olodum, who inspired American musician Paul Simon to incorporate Brazilian percussion on his influential The Rhythm of the Saints album.

Colombia Colombia has the distinction of bordering both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, and the musical culture of the country reflects its Native American, Spanish, and African American heritage. The geographical location of Colombia, with its proximity to the Caribbean, Central America, and Brazil meant that a blend of tropical island music with mainland South American music would likely occur.

417

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Of the Colombian music that most directly influences the U.S., the first was the African- based drumming. As in all African religious societies, drums are sacred, are believed to have a spirit; and are to be treated in a respectful manner. Each type of drum has its specific purpose and musical function. Originally, African languages prevailed in the predominately African American areas, but as time passed, more and more Spanish was incorporated into songs that utilized an African-based percussion group. Many of the African-influenced songs would consist of vocal(s) and percussion. Once the song was sung a couple of times, there often was a section where only percussion would play, and the lead drum or drummers would include more intricate rhythms.

The Spanish folk influence is also strong in the Colombian musical tradition, where guitars, strings, and harps would accompany songs of the Spanish tradition. It was logical; then, that the two styles would merge together. Music from Mexico, Brazil, Central America, the U.S., and the Caribbean (especially Trinidad, Jamaica, and Cuba) play a significant role in Colombia. The instrumentation of groups would include vocalists, percussion, guitars, bass, drums, keyboards, and horns that would constantly mix African, Spanish, and U.S. influences.

A dance of Colombian origin, the cúmbia, is one of the most popular song types in Latin America, and is quite prevalent in Latino dances in the U.S. today. Cúmbia is a complex, rhythmic music which arose on Colombia's Atlantic coast. During the 17th and 18th century African slave populations of Colombia’s Caribbean coastal towns lived, worked and died alongside the indigenous Amerindian’s, a population similarity exploited by the colonial powers of Europe.

Out of this society cúmbia emerged as a social and courtship dance, taking its name from the Guinean dance cumbè. On certain holidays and special occasions, people would gather to dance cúmbia, accompanied by African drumming and singing. The basis of all cúmbia is this percussion, to which native Amerindian flutes and shakers were added as the music developed. This fusion of African and Indian elements created gaitero music, which is the traditional folkloric form of cúmbia, whose sounds can still be heard today in places like the town of San Basilico de Palenque, a Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 463

walled city founded by escaped slaves as a refugee from the colonial forces. The name comes from the large native Amerindian flute, the gaita.

While the cúmbia dance developed and stayed very much true to its roots, reflecting the deep cultural basis from which it came, the music, born of a hybrid of two cultures, continued (and continues) to be influenced by outside forces. According to legend, a German shipwreck that washed up onshore became the origin of the accordion sounds which are emblematic of folkloric cúmbia and (another form of popular Colombian folk music).

Spanish and European influences permeated cúmbia, blending guitar, lute and orchestral arrangements. In the 1920’s, Colombian dance bands began playing cúmbia and adding horns, brass and other orchestra instruments. From the small roots of one drum, a shaker and a flute, cúmbia bands became veritable ensembles and in the 1930’s when Colombian bandleaders toured New York, the bands had become so large that they could not afford to send all their musicians and were forced to use Puerto Rican groups to perform.418

Cúmbia's form was solidified in the 1940’s, when it spread from the rural countryside to urban and middle-class audiences. Cuban , jazz big band and porro (military style brass band) influences were combined by artists like Lucho Bermúdez to form a refined form of cúmbia during the 1950’s. Disco Fuentes, the largest and most influential record label in the country, was founded during this time. Fruko, known as the Godfather of Salsa, introduced Cuban salsa to Colombia and helped bring Discos Fuentes to national prominence by finding artists like La Sonora Dinamita.

418 http://cumbiaexhibition.blogspot.com/2008/09/history.html Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 464

419 La Sonora Dinamita brought cúmbia to Mexico, where it remains popular.

The cúmbia can best be described as a tropical polka. It is in a fast or moderately fast duple meter, and the bass line is very similar to the "oom-pah" of a polka, with a note added on the fourth beat as well, meaning that the bass plays on beats one, three, and four. Instruments playing the offbeats, (usually the keyboard and/or guitar will be much like a polka as well, except the offbeats may have a slightly longer duration than a true polka. The drums play a modified polka beat, and one of the additional percussion instruments, (there are usually three percussionists ideally) will add an accent on the fourth beat of every bar of four. The "tropical" syncopated rhythms will come from the vocalist and the horn sections.

In today's modern cúmbia, if a horn section is not available, a synthesizer may play the horn parts. The tropical rhythms are often similar to what one might hear in Puerto Rico or the Dominican Republic, but are done to a simpler polka-style beat. By far the most rhythmic complexity in the cúmbia is found in the African-type of syncopation done by the vocalist - in Spanish! The dance is quite popular

419 http://www.apodacapromotions.com/noticias/2006/Ago2_07.htm

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throughout Latin America, and one would be hard pressed not to hear numerous cúmbias on any Spanish-speaking radio station in the U.S.

Traditional Cúmbia Dancers at the Festival of Barranquilla in Northern Colombia420

While cúmbia spread across the borders to Latin America and beyond, at the same time it continued to incorporate more modern instruments including synthesizers and programmed beats. In its travels across time and space, cúmbia has also spawned numerous genes like cúmbia villera (Argentina) and Pervucian Chicha music. Interestingly, outside of Colombia, cúmbia music has been traditionally associated with the lower/working classes of society, especially in Argentina, where it has merged with the countries class and political issues such as race, poverty, and immigration.

In the 21st century, with communications technologies increasing the speed of human cultural interaction, the mutations and permeations of cúmbia, already adept at spreading its infectious beat, have only increased and its cultural presence has been felt in mainstream publications, especially in the USA with its large Hispanic population. Its presence on the internet and blogosphere has exploded since 2005

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and it has been one of the main genres sampled with border-crossing DJs in the global club music scene.421

Musica Tropícal The term applied to songs that represent music of tropical influence is called musica tropícal (). The cúmbia fits into this category, as well as all of the Caribbean styles. Musica tropícal is played everywhere, but is most popular in the Caribbean, Colombia, Venezuela, the east coast of Brazil, Central America, the east coast of Mexico, and south Florida.

In the late 1950’s, Mexican rock artists like Enrique Guzmán and César Costa became very popular in Colombia. Soon, native rock bands like Los Speakers gained a wide following. Starting in 1967, native bands like Genesis (unrelated to the English rock band of the same name) fused native musical forms (like cúmbia) with rock. The group Aterciopelados began as an urban punk band in the early 1990’s, later combining electronic and other influences to great acclaim. Other artists have found international acknowledgment as well. Singer-songwriter Juanes swept the Latin Grammys in 2003 with his album Un Día Normal which has become very popular in the US. Other artists like Carlos Vives, Soraya and Cabas have become known worldwide.

421 http://cumbiaexhibition.blogspot.com/2008/09/history.html Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 467

After achieving superstardom throughout Latin America, Colombian-born Shakira became 's biggest female crossover artist since Jennifer Lopez broke down the doors to English-language success. Noted for her aggressive, rock-influenced approach, Shakira maintained an extraordinary degree of creative control over her music, especially for a female artist; she wrote or co-wrote nearly all of her own material, and in the process gained a reputation as one of 's most ambitiously poetic lyricists. When she released her first English material in late 2001, she became an instant pop sensation, thanks to her quirky poetic sense and a sexy video image built on her hip-shaking moves.422

After the success of her album Pies Descalzos in 1993, Shakira began working with producer Emilio Estefan Jr. and recorded ¿Dónde Están los Ladrones? which sold millions worldwide, proving herself as more than a "studio pop-diva" in her MTV Unplugged presentation, Shakira went on to make an English album Laundry Service which debuted at #3 in the US billboard charts. She continues to be a major figure in Latin American music, branching out into even more eclectic styles in the last ten years. Her impact in pop music should not be underestimated:

422 http://myplay.com/artists/shakira

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According to BMI, Shakira is the highest-selling Colombian artist of all time, having sold more than 50 million albums worldwide. According to Nielsen Broadcast Data Systems, "Hips Don't Lie" was the most-played pop song in a single week in American radio history. It was played 9,637 times in one week. Shakira became the first artist in the history of the Billboard charts to earn the coveted number one spots on both the Top 40 Mainstream and Latin Chart in the same week doing so with "Hips Don't Lie". “La Tortura” broke the record on the Billboard's Hot Latin Tracks chart, appearing at #1 more than any other single (a total of 25 non- consecutive weeks). According to Yahoo!, "Hips Don't Lie" is the Best-Selling Single of the Last 10 Years, which is apparently the best-selling single since 2000.

According to Forbes Magazine, Shakira was the fourth highest-earning woman in music for 2008 behind Madonna, and . According to Nokia in 2010, there were more Shakira music downloads in the prior year than for any other Latino artist in the last five years, and She Wolf topped the Top 10 Latino downloads. Additionally, she is the only artist from South America to reach the number-one spot on the U.S. , the Australian ARIA chart, and the UK Singles Chart. In 2010, Shakira was ranked number five on the 'Online Video's Most Viral Artists of 2010' with 404,118,932 views.

Shakira has become a youtube sensation, having surpassed 1 billion views on the website with “Waka Waka” accounting for over 450 million views. She is the third person ever to have done this, after Lady Gaga and . As of June 2012 the music video for "Waka Waka" is the third most viewed video on YouTube and the number-one most viewed High Definition video. Shakira has also surpassed 100 million views with the video for "Rabiosa", "Loca", "Whenever, Wherever" and "Hips Don't Lie".

Shakira was honored at the Latin Grammys on November 9, 2011, as 2011's Latin Recording Academy Person of the Year. Shakira was to be given a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 2004, but turned the offer down citing that she did not want to be considered a star of Hollywood. On November 8, 2011, Shakira finally received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame located at 6270 Hollywood Blvd. In 2012, Shakira received the honor of Chevalier De L’Ordre des Arts et des Lettres, an award that recognizes eminent artists and writers, and those who have contributed significantly to furthering the arts in France and throughout the world.423

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Mexico In Mexico, the primary musical influence is European and Native American. Although separated initially by war and atrocities, the two cultures have lived side by side, with far more cultural intermingling than what occurred than in the U.S. This is mainly because of the larger population of Native Americans in Mexico, and the fact that most Mexicans, whether they admit it or not, are mestizo (of mixed origin). Indigenous music of Mexico blends traditional and European music. Songs might be performed in Yacqui, Mayan, Zapotec, or Spanish, depending on the singer. Songs may contain traditional Native American instruments such as reed and clay flutes, conch shell horns, rattles, and ceremonial drums, or might contain European instruments: harps, fiddles, trumpets (or other horns), and guitars. The Indian and mestizo musicians not only learned to play European instruments, but also to build their own instruments, sometimes giving them unique shapes and tunings. The amount of Native American or Spanish influence will vary considerably from group to group and state to state!

There is a common misconception among people in the U.S. that all Mexican music sounds like mariachi music, probably due to its tremendous popularity in Mexico in the first half of the 20th century, and because it was the first music to come into the U.S. from Mexico. The amount of musical diversity in Mexico is considerable, but it is appropriate to begin with mariachi.

Mariachi Music and dance were important elements of Spanish theatrical productions – enormously popular throughout the Spanish-speaking world during the colonial period. Typical Spanish theatrical music of the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries used violins (usually two), guitars (or guitar variants), and a harp. The most distinctive regional ensembles of Mexico developed from this instrumentation, including the Mariachi. The Mexican states credited with the origin of Mariachi are in the west – Jalisco, Colima, Michoacan, Nayarit, and southern Sinaloa, where musicians played traditional folk music for parties.

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The origin of the term is under debate. Scholars have attributed the word to have been derived from mariage, a French word for marriage, with the theory being that groups of musicians would play for weddings during the time of French intervention in Mexico (1861-67). However, this is disputed by the fact that the French had no permanent settlements in Mexico, and that term has recently been traced back to the 1830's.

Other sources claim that the term came from celebrations honoring a virgin named Mary H. Mary (Maria) is followed by the letter "H", pronounced in Spanish as hache. Combined, the words Maria Hache sound much like mariachi. There is also a theory that the word originated with the Coca Indians that had several different meanings. At one time it referred to a tree. At another time it referred to wooden platforms on which people danced, probably because they made the dance platforms out of the wood from the mariachi tree. At another time, the word referred to the musicians that played for people to dance on the wooden platforms made from the mariachi tree. And still later, by the time the Spaniards arrived in Mexico, the word mariachi referred to a particular musical group. Other scholars claim that this is an indigenous term to the western states, and leave it at that.

424 http://www.milebymile.com/kmimages/mexico_map_500.gif

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The first recording of a mariachi group occurred in 1905. These early groups did not contain trumpets, but originally consisted of two violins, a vihuela, and a guitarron. A vihuela is a small, swollen "V" shaped guitar with five strings from Jalisco, and is known for its crisp, clear sound. A guitarron is like a large vihuela, but is actually a six string bass guitar, with tuning different from a regular guitar. Sometimes, a Mexican folk harp would double the bass line of the guitarron.

425 In the author’s opinion, 6 musicians are the minimum needed to capture the true maricachi sound. The vihuela is the guitar on the left, and the guitarron is front right. A minimum of two trumpets and two violins will allow the harmony to be in two parts. Often the trumpets play and the violins answer or vice versa. Or, they will double each other so one trumpet and one violin is playing one pitch and the other trumpet and violin play the 2nd pitch. Mariachi groups that have three trumpets will usually have 3 violins and will play in three part harmony. Many mariachi groups thrive in the U.S. The above group, Mariachi de Oro, is based in New Jersey.

After the Mexican revolution (1910-1920), mariachi became immensely popular in Mexico. The 1920's and 1930's was the peak of popularity for mariachi, and groups

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expanded to four violins, vihuela, guitarron, two guitars, and a harp (but still no trumpets!). With the invention and increasing popularity of radio, performances for large audiences became typical, so trumpets were added to the mariachi groups in the 1930's for more volume. The trumpets would either double the violins in two or three-part harmony or the melody would be alternated between the strings, trumpets, and vocals.

The most important song of the mariachi groups was the son (which literally means “sound”). A mixture of folk traditions from Spain, Mexico, and Africa, the popular son was found in many regions of the country, and was used to accompany dancing. The son from Jalisco is called the , and its most well-known example is La Negra. Sones from other regions include the or son veracruzano, from the region around the Gulf port of Veracruz; and the , from northeastern Mexico. The most famous example of the son jarocho is La Bamba. A typical son huasteco, also known as the , is La Malagueña. Some sones, such as El Gusto, are common in all three regions.

As one listens to mariachi music, it’s easy to notice that there is a certain amount of complexity to the total number of rhythms achieved between all of the instruments, especially with the tendency on some sones to divide a meter of six into different subdivisions:

Three groups of two, with accents on beats 1, 3, and 5 (giving a triple feel)

Two groups of three, with accents on beats 1 and 4, which can be given 2 afterbeats for each main accent (giving a triple feel) or 1 after beat, which superimposes a temporary duple meter, or feeling of a meter of four.

Violins, trumpets, and vocals are usually in two-part harmony or three-part harmony depending on how many in the group. The singing style is quite dramatic, and parallels the European-based operatic style in full voice. Couple that with occasional gritos (cries) and sibildos (whistles), and there is an exciting music indeed. Mariachi musicians learned their music through oral tradition, and while some groups read music today, most perform hundreds of songs from memory. Improvisation is not usually done in such ensembles, except perhaps on a novelty tune that may feature a trumpet cadenza.

The Mexican government used traveling mariachi groups to advertise tourism to Mexico, and so it is often seen in a concert setting, yet in Mexico it would be unheard of to not dance to mariachi groups at a gathering. It is important to remember that the son and other types of Mariachi music is not just music to be played and sung. From the very start, it was music to be danced. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 473

These dancers are performing a traditional Mexican dance form called Baile Folklórico. Literally meaning "folkloric dance" in Spanish, the dance is a combination of local folk dances with balletic moves such as pointed toes and exaggerated movements. In Jalisco it is danced to the music of a mariachi band.426

The traditional dance technique associated with both the son jalisciense and son jarocho is the zapateado, a distinctive type of footwork that originated in Spain. When dancing the zapateado the performers skillfully drive the heels of their boots or shoes into the dance floor, pounding out swift, often syncopated rhythms which complement the different rhythm of the musical instruments. The zapateado can literally reduce even the most resistant dance floor to splinters because of the force with which it is danced.

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Zapateado (sah-pay-tay–áh-do) refers to a combination of dance steps that are executed swiftly and vigorously. Each of the 31 Mexican states (and the Federal District) has its typical zapateados. For example, in Jalisco, the zapateado is danced to a three-beat rhythm.427

Each of the regional variations of the son has its traditional style of dance. The huapango or son huasteco, for instance, like the son jalisciense and son jarocho, was originally danced on wooden platforms, in some areas mounted on earthen jugs.

428 To dance the huapango the couples line up in opposing columns. The upper part of the body is held perfectly erect as the feet perform rapid, intricate, shuffling maneuvers. Today it is sometimes performed with a glass of water on the head to show off the dancer's incredible muscular control.

427 www.danceforpower.org/balletfolklorico.html 428 http://performingartsmex.blogspot.com/p/dance.html

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One platform dance, or huapango fandango, originated as a flamenco dance and later acquired regional characteristics. It is performed throughout an area extending from the Huasteca region of Tamaulipas to southern Veracruz. Vigorous heel and toe stampings are executed on a special wooden platform called huapango, which has holes bored in its sides to convert it into a sounding board. Couples face each other on the platform in attitudes of cool indifference while their feet follow the rhythms of the music. Instruments are violins, guitars, jaranas (small, double-stringed guitars) and in some regions, harps. One or two men sing, sometimes, as in the Huasteca area, in falsetto.429

The lyrics of the sones frequently describe country life: in particular, the plants, animals and people of the region. These lyrics are highly suggestive, often using imagery of the courtship of farm animals to describe the relations of men and women. In the dance the movements of the performers often represent the farm- yard courtship described in the verses of the sones.

Another kind of music related to the son and intimately connected with a particular dance is the jarabe. The jarabe, which has many regional variations, is really a medley of dance pieces, including sones, , jotas, and polkas. No discussion of mariachi dance would be complete without mentioning the famous Jarabe Tapatío - the Mexican Hat Dance. Associated with Guadalajara in the state of Jalisco, it has become the national dance of Mexico. It is highly stylized, with prescribed movements and costumes. The male wears the classic outfit of the Jalisco

429 http://ahs.rjuhsd.k12.ca.us/Activities/Folklorico/images/veracruz_drawing.jpg

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horsemen or charro, while the female (the China) wears a hand-woven shawl and a bright sequined skirt.

The Country Jarabe, the most popular among the dances of Central Mexico and the Jalisco highlands, originated in the saraos or hops of the 18th century. On all festive occasions during Colonial times, the people danced jarabes. They are characterized by a hopping step and resemble the flamenco dances. The pattern, simulating a courting episode, is said to have evolved out of a very old Huichol dance called “The Turkey,” where the performers imitate the movements of the male bird paying court to the female.

With time, these tunes or airs were combined to form a single dance like the Jarabe Tapatío which started as a group of six airs and later came to incorporate nine. The National Jarabe is composed of thirteen airs and an ornamental coda. This dance, performed in China Poblana and Charro costume, has become the prototype of all Mexican dances and is world famous.

Popular in the Jalisco highlands is the “Long Country Jarabe”, so-called because of the great number of tunes ("sones") in its composition. Among them are: The “Cat Jarabe”, the “Dove Jarabe”, Petrita, the “Lard Loaf”, the Chirrimpamplin, the “Peach”, Ahualulco, the Guajito, the “Thorn”, the “Dwarfs”, the “Lame Man”, and many others. The man's steps are more vigorous and showy than in any , and his manner is one of persistent pursuit and gallant attention to his partner. In one of the passages, he flings his sombrero on the ground so that the woman may dance on its brim. Her movements are prim and maidenly and her attitude alternates from coyness to coquettishness. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 477

The woman's costume is simply her gala ranch attire. She wears a low-necked, long- sleeved blouse, a flounced skirt and a fine-spun Santa Maria rebozo. The man wears a charro suit, usually made of chamois-skin or serge.430

By the 1930's Mariachi musicians had begun wearing the same traje de charro, consisting of a waist-length jacket and tightly fitted wool pants which open slightly at the ankle to fit over a short riding boot. Both pants and jacket are often ornamented with embroidery, intricately cut leather designs, or silver buttons in a variety of shapes. Prior to the 1930's, photographs show early dressed in calzones de manta, and huaraches, homespun white cotton pants and shirts and leather sandals, the clothes worn by most peasants in Jalisco.

Mariachi music was the music of country people. Until the 1930's Mariachi groups were local and semi-professional. They were almost entirely unknown outside their own region. This began to change about 60 years ago, when one of the most popular early groups, the Mariachi Vargas de Tecalitlán, founded by Gaspar Vargas in 1898, went from Jalisco to Mexico City. They were invited to play at the inauguration in 1934 of populist President Lá zaro Cárdenas, one of whose great interests was to foster the native culture of Mexico. Catching the President’s enthusiasm, urban sophisticates took the folk arts to their hearts, and the Mariachi Vargas instantly became the toast of the town.

The initial success was only the beginning. Silvestre Vargas, who had taken over from his father as leader of the Mariachi Vargas in 1928, soon hired a trained musician, Rubín Fuentes, as musical director. Fuentes, still actively involved with the Mariachi Vargas more than fifty years later, is one of the towering figures in the development of the Mariachi. With the help of Silvestre Vargas, he standardized the arrangements of many of the traditional sones, composed many exceptional new , and wrote arrangements for many of the legendary songwriters and singers of his generation, including Pedro Infante, Miguel Aceves Mejía, Lola Beltrán, and José Alfredo Jiménez. By the 1950's he insisted that all his musicians read music. These innovations changed the way Mariachi music moved from one group to another. Gone was the total reliance of the musicians on their ears to pick up new songs, and techniques.

With this giant step toward professionalism coinciding with the development of recordings, radio and film, the Mariachi Vargas became the ideal that all other groups would emulate. By the 1950's, with the addition of two trumpets, a classical guitar and more violins, the ensemble had become a complete, adaptable orchestra, with the ability to retain its traditional base while it was assimilating new musical

430 Ibid. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 478

ideas and styles. The importance of Mariachi Vargas cannot be overestimated, in that they are often considered the definitive Mariachi group.

Mariachi Vargas de Tecalitlán cir. 1953431

Mariachis often help celebrate the great moments in the lives of Mexican people. With the serenata (serenade), the Mariachi participates in the rite of courtship. In a society where the young members of opposite sexes were kept apart, the serenata was a means of communication by which a young man could send a message of love to the woman of his heart. In many areas of Mexico, it is not unusual to be awakened by the sound of Las Mañanitas, the traditional song for saints days, or birthdays. The Mariachi is usually positioned strategically on the street beneath the window of the festejada, but the sound of its music echoes through the whole neighborhood. Mariachis are also commonly hired for baptisms, weddings, patriotic holidays, and even funerals. It is not unusual for the deceased to leave a list of favorite songs to be sung beside the grave at burial.

Mariachi music has been incorporated into the Roman Catholic Church's most sacred ritual: the Mass. The Misa Panamericana is a Mariachi folk mass sung in Spanish that uses traditional instruments to create vivid new interpretations of the traditional elements of the service: Angelus, Kyrie eleison, Gloria, Alleluia, Offertory, Credo, Sanctus, and Agnus Dei. The first Mariachi Mass was the concept of a Canadian priest, Father Juan Marco Leclerc, and has been celebrated

431 http://guitarron.tripod.com/Albumcovers/Vargas_bw_10inch.jpg Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 479

in Cuernavaca since 1966. It originally took place in a small chapel, but news of it spread so rapidly, and the crowds grew so large, that the regular Sunday Mariachi Mass had to be moved to the Cathedral of Cuernavaca. It is now frequently performed throughout Mexico, and in many areas in the United States where people of Mexican origin live.432

Mariachi music may still be found in Mexico, although it is considered "old time" music, much like Dixieland or swing is in the U.S. today. In the U.S., however, there is a demand for mariachi music, and not just in traditionally Hispanic areas. Mariachi music has become deeply rooted in the United States, where it has taken on unique characteristics and has even influenced Mexican mariachi music. During the late 1950’s and early 1960’s, a number of organized mariachi groups immigrated to Los Angeles. In 1961, Nati Cano organized Los Camperos, which became known as the pioneer group in the U.S., popularizing mariachi among non-Hispanics. In 1969, Los Camperos opened La Fonda restaurant in Los Angeles, the world's first venue designed to showcase a mariachi. Other U.S. groups followed suit, and eventually this concept was adopted in Mexico. Mariachi Uclatlán, founded in 1961 at the University of California at Los Angeles Institute of , pioneered the academic mariachi tradition, and today educational institutions throughout the Southwest offer classes in mariachi music. Mariachi Cobre, founded in Tucson, Arizona in 1971, was the first prominent Mexican-American mariachi group.

In 1979, the First international Mariachi Conference was held in San Antonio, Texas. Since then, mariachi festivals and conferences have proliferated in the United States; Mexico celebrated its first international festival in 1994. Linda Ronstadt's 1987 album, Canciones de mi Padre, heralded the creation of a new audience for mariachi music among non-Hispanics. While Ronstadt is a traditionalist, mariachis such as Sol de Mexico in Los Angeles and Campanas de America in San Antonio seek innovation, combining other musical styles with that of the mariachi.

Since mariachi music reached its peak in popularity during the 1950’s and 1960’s, it has increasingly become a nostalgia genre, marginalized by the media that initially catapulted it to fame. With the exception of isolated attempts to infuse new vitality into the tradition from outside sources, relatively little new mariachi music is composed or performed today. Nevertheless, the mariachi remains in demand for social functions in Mexican and Mexican-American communities, where it has become a cultural inheritance. Upon revisiting the mariachi group El Tlaquepaque in Placentia, California, their leader, Antonio Ramos told me that most of the jobs for mariachi groups are in southern California and with U.S. tours as opposed to jobs in

432 http://www.mariachi.org/history Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 480

Mexico. The recent revival in the United States has given new life to the mariachi, whose appeal transcends ethnic groups and national borders.

Ranchera, Tex-Mex, Norteño, Tejano, Texican All of the above terms are used rather interchangeable to represent music originating from northern Mexico, or Mexican-influenced music in south Texas. While mariachi enjoyed popularity, music from the north of Mexico evolved in a somewhat different manner. One very popular Mexican musical form is the ranchera ("from the ranch"), which originated during the time of the Mexican Revolution. It is essentially cowboy music, so the singers dress in the traditional style of the Mexican horseman with tight breeches, jacket, boots, gun holsters and a large sombrero.

A black-tie Charro Adelita (wide-ruffled) dress China Poblana dress433

The lyrics of ranchera songs typically deal with rural life, the unrequited love for a woman, or about the struggles of ordinary people living in the country. The songs are sometimes joyous and sometimes nostalgic or tragic, and are often sung in a very dramatic and passionate manner, with the singer crying out "ay ay ay ay ay!" at various points.

433 http://theautry.org/explore/exhibits/charreria.html

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In the first half of the twentieth century, two types of musical ensembles originated among the Mexicans in Texas. These are música norteña, known among Mexican Texans as conjuntos, and orquesta tejana, or simply orquesta. Both conjuntos and orquesta had become major musical styles by the 1950’s, and their influence had spread far beyond the Texas borders by the 1970’s.

Conjuntos (groups) In the borderlands, (las fronteras) many narrative folk songs arose out of conflicts in the nineteenth century and were political in nature. These folk songs were called , and became the basis for many of the accordion-based conjuntos (groups). During the 1930’s and 1940’s music mirrored the evolution of Hispanics in southwestern U.S. cities, as bicultural communities emerged from Mexican roots within the United States. This was the first generation of Americans of Mexican descent to aspire for inclusion in Anglo-American life. Música norteña had its beginnings along the Texas-Mexico border. The diatonic button accordion, which is the heart of música norteña, was introduced either into northeastern Mexico or to south central Texas sometime in the middle of the nineteenth century — perhaps by German, Czech, or Polish immigrants who settled there. The exact identity of the donor culture may never be known.

The Norteño Push-Button Accordion434

The first accordions used in Conjunto Music were one-row button instruments. The two-row model came in by the early 1930’s and finally by the 1950’s the now standard three-row diatonic instrument became the foundation of the conjunto. In

434 http://www.gabbanelliaccordions.com/images/nort_343.jpg Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 482

order to be able to play just about every popular song in every key, most conjunto accordionists today carry three accordions with them, each in a different key.435

By the late nineteenth century the accordion, coupled with one or two other instruments — the tambora de rancho (ranch drum) and the bajo sexto (literally mean “sixth bass”; a 12-string guitar) — had become the norm for music and dance celebrations in south Texas. The tambora was a primitive folk instrument fashioned out of native materials. It was usually played with wooden mallets; their tips covered with cotton wrapped in goatskin. Eventually, the upright bass became the preferred third member of the conjuntos instead of the tambora when there was a trio. Many of the early artists were duos of accordion and bajo sexto.

436 The bajo sexto apparently originated in the Guanajuato-Michoacán area in Mexico; it is a 12- string guitar tuned in double courses. How it migrated to and established itself in the border area is a mystery. But, in its new locale it became an indispensable companion to the accordion, especially after 1930, when it and the accordion emerged as the core of the evolving ensemble.

The conjunto thrived from early on as the preferred ensemble for rural working- class folk. In its early days it relied on the salon music that had been introduced from Europe in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Popular dance band ensembles catered to this generation's biculturalism by playing genres chosen from both the Latin and the American traditions: bolero, danzón, , and rumba alternating with boogie, swing, waltzes, fox-trots, schottische, and polkas. The polka was particularly popular because of the large German settlements in northern Mexico. After World War II, a type of fusion of the traditions took place that developed into a distinctive sound, especially among the orquestas and conjuntos in Texas and northern Mexico. Rounding out the repertoire was the huapango, music

435 http://www.lib.utexas.edu/benson/border/arhoolie2/narciso.html

436 http://images.publicradio.org/content/2006/08/22/20060822_bajo_2.jpg

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native to the Gulf Coast region of Tamaulipas and northern Vera Cruz in Mexico. The huapango is more frequently associated with the music of the huasteca region of southern Tamaulipas, where it has a ternary pulse built around a 3/4 meter. As performed by norteños, however, the huapango early on acquired a binary pulse built around the triplets of 6/8 meter.

The history of the Mexican-Texan conjunto can be divided into three distinct stages:

Late 1920’s - improvisational style, accordion played solo, or with guitar or bajo sexto, or with the tambora de rancho. German technique – heavy use of the left- hand bass-chord buttons.

Mid-1930’s - conjunto moves into U.S., large growth due to large American recording labels. Accordionist Narciso Martínez, acknowledged as the "father" of the modern conjunto, devised a new technique, by stopping use of the left-hand bass-chord buttons, leaving the accompaniment to the bajo sexto, which created a clean, trebly, and staccato effect, becoming the standard after World War II.

437

1950’s – accordionist Valerio Longoria added the modern trap drums and the canción ranchera, the latter a working-class subtype of the Mexican ranchera, which dates from the 1930’s. Obsessed with abandoned men and unfaithful women, the canción ranchera has always had special appeal for male patrons of conjunto music. Since it was often performed in the 2/4 meter of the traditional polka favored by Mexican

437 http://www.lib.utexas.edu/benson/border/arhoolie2/huracan3.gif

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Texans, the ranchera quickly replaced the polka itself as the mainstay of the modern conjunto.

In the 1950’s, Tony de la Rosa revolutionized conjunto and shaped much of its post- World War II sound by adding drums and electrifying the bajo sexto in his group. This sparked a new dance, the tachuachito, and led to conjunto bands playing larger rooms with a now-amplified sound.

Paulino Bernal is a major figure in the development of the modern ensemble. His conjunto is hailed as the greatest in the history of the tradition, an honor based on the craftsmanship and the number of innovations attributable to El Conjunto Bernal. The latter include the introduction of three-part vocals and the addition of the larger chromatic accordion. El Conjunto Bernal's greatest distinction, however, lies in its ability to take the traditional elements of the conjunto and raise them to a level of virtuosity that has not been matched to this day. Bernal had accomplished all of this by the early 1960’s.

Ushering in a new era, Paulino was the exception among conjunto musicians in his use of the expensive and large chromatic accordion. In the 1950's, Paulino and his brother, Eloy, stunned audiences with a style of accordion music never heard before. His musical talent and style was considered light years ahead of its time creating a smooth blending of his serious music with its harmonies into his signature polka style. He would become one of the most influential conjunto musicians in history.438

After 1960 the conjunto and the older norteño ensemble across the Rio Grande began to converge, as the norteños came under the influence of their Tejano

438 http://www.pbs.org/accordiondreams/pioneers/bios/paulinobernal.html

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counterparts. Especially responsible for this convergence was Los Relámpagos del Norte (The Northern Lightning Bolts), a group led by accordionist Ramón Ayala and bajo sexto player Cornelio Reyna. By 1967 the group had risen to unparalleled fame on both sides of the border. The group remained unchallenged until the mid-1970’s, when Ayala and Reyna went their separate ways. Ayala shortly organized his own conjunto, Los Bravos del Norte (The Northern Brave Ones), and that group went on to dominate the norteño market for at least a decade. Other well known norteños were the group Los Alegres de Terán, Lydia Mendoza (guitar), and Flaco Jimenez (accordion).

439

Following in the footsteps of his legendary father, Santiago Jiménez, Flaco created a unique Tex-Mex accordion sound that cuts through all genres. He has added influences such as country, rock, blues and cajun , which have increased his appeal to a broader

439 http://www.lib.utexas.edu/benson/border/arhoolie2/chulas.gif Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 486

audience. In the opinion of some, he is probably the best-known conjunto artist in the world with incredible endurance.440

Since the innovations of the 1960’s, the conjunto has turned decidedly conservative, with both musicians and patrons choosing to preserve the elements of the style as these were worked out in the 1940’s through the 1960’s. Despite its conservatism the tradition has expanded phenomenally, spreading far beyond its original base along the Texas-Mexico border in the 1970’s to 1990’s. In the last few years, the music has taken root in such far-flung places as Washington, D.C., California, and the Midwest, as well as the entire tier of northern Mexican Border States, and even in such places as Michoacán and Sinaloa. In its seemingly unstoppable expansion, conjunto music has always articulated a strong Mexicanized, working-class life-style, thus helping to preserve Mexican culture wherever it has taken root on American (and Mexican) soil.

The Orquesta The other medium of influence, the orquesta, has a fascinating history in the music of the Hispanic Southwest. Actually, three types of orquestas have been present in the Southwest at different periods in the 19th century. The earliest type is one that existed during the nineteenth century and the early part of the twentieth. This early ensemble, built primarily around the violin, was hardly an "orquesta." It was for the most part an improvised ensemble, one dependent on the availability of musicians and scarce instruments for composition.

The rudimentary nature of this early orquesta is linked to the marginalization of the Mexicans of the Southwest — their loss of political and economic stability when the Anglo-Americans invaded the territory and eventually annexed it to the United States. Opportunities for musical training all but disappeared, reducing an orquesta tradition inherited from Greater Mexico to its bare and often improvised essentials — a violin or two plus guitar accompaniment, with other instruments added on an ad hoc basis.

Despite its impoverished character, the early orquesta of the Hispanic Southwest nonetheless enjoyed great prominence in the musical affairs of the Mexican communities across the territory — even in Texas, where the emergent conjunto offered strong competition. Small orquestas were enlisted for all kinds of celebrations, which ran the gamut from private weddings and birthdays to public celebrations. These orquestas were of variable composition, although they seldom included more than a violin or two with guitar accompaniment.

440 http://www.pbs.org/accordiondreams/pioneers/images/flaco.jpg

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The 1920’s saw the emergence in the urban areas of better-organized orquestas, built around the violin. This was the so-called orquesta típica (typical orchestra). The first típica was organized in Mexico City in 1880, and it was supposedly modeled after an earlier folk orquesta common in Mexican rural areas throughout the nineteenth century (also known as típica) and apparently similar in instrumentation to the folk orquestas of the Hispanic Southwest. The self-styled orquestas típicas of urban origin were clearly expressions of what is known as costumbrismo — the orquesta members were given to wearing "typical" charro (cowboy) outfits similar to those worn by the Mexican mariachi, in an effort to capture some of the flavor of Mexican pastoral life.

In the United States, the first típica was probably organized in El Paso or Laredo sometime in the 1920’s. These orquestas were strongly reminiscent of the modern mariachi, whose historical roots they may well share. The basic instrumentation of the orquesta típica consisted of violins, guitars, and other stringed instruments, although in the Southwest other instruments were often used. The size of the típica could vary from four or five musicians to as many as 20.

Típicas were enlisted for almost any occasion, although they were ideally suited for patriotic-type celebrations, such as cinco de mayo (fifth of May, when the Mexican general Ignacio Zaragoza postponed the French invasion of Mexico by defeating General Laurencez at Puebla) and diez y de septiembre (sixteenth of September, Independence Day), two dates of special significance for Mexican people. The repertoire of orquestas típicas consisted of aires nacionales — tunes that over the years had acquired status as "national airs." Típicas seem to have fallen out of favor among Mexican Americans during the Great Depression of the 1930’s. They disappeared from the musical scene in the Southwest during World War II.

On the other hand, the 1930’s saw the emergence of the third and most important type of orquesta, this one a version of the bands that swept through the urban landscapes of both Mexico and the United States during the 1920’s and 1930’s. The modern orquesta is tied to the fortunes of a new group of Mexican Americans during the 1930’s and 1940’s. This was the first generation of Americans of Mexican descent who in some ways tried to detach themselves from their Hispanic culture in order to participate (or assimilate) in the American way.

The orquesta catered to the generation's bicultural nature. By performing music traditionally associated with Mexico and Latin America, it kept alive the Mexican Americans' ethnic roots; by performing music associated with American big bands, it satisfied the desire to assimilate American culture. Thus, from Mexico and Latin Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 488

America came the danzón, bolero, guaracha, rumba, and other dance genres; from the United States came the boogie, swing, fox-trot, and so on.

Texas assumed a leadership role in musical development in the Hispanic Southwest after World War II. Saxophonist Beto Villa, from Falfurrias, Texas, was sometimes called the "father" of the Mexican American orquesta.

Beto Villa successfully bridged the gap between traditional Mexican music and popular American music -- considered the Lawrence Welk of the time. Playing high tone or "highbrow" orchestra music, he gave the music, and those attending dances, a middle class respectable air. Beto is considered the father of Tejano orquesta and strongly influenced the of this musical style.441 Acclaimed for a folksy, ranchero polka that took the Southwest by storm, Villa deftly juxtaposed this "country" style polka, which came to be known as Tex-Mex, against more sophisticated genres drawn from Latin America and the United States — danzones, , fox-trots, and swings.

A notable successor to the Tex-Mex tradition was Isidro López, also from Texas. A singer-saxophonist, López deliberately emphasized the ranchero mode of performance in an attempt to attract a larger share of the common workers, who were otherwise more faithful to the ever more powerful (and more ranchero) conjunto. López was the first orquesta leader to add the working-class canción

441 http://www.pbs.org/accordiondreams/bigpics/betovilla.jpg

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ranchera to the orquesta repertoire. But he added his own touch to the ranchera, embellishing it with a blend of mariachi and Tex-Mex that López himself dubbed Texachi. Two other orquesta leaders of note during the 1940’s and 1950’s were Balde González from Victoria, Texas, and Pedro Bugarín, from Phoenix, Arizona.

In the Los Angeles area, a number of orquestas operated during the 1940’s and 1950’s. Most took their cue from musical developments in Latin America (including the Afro-Caribbean) and were less influenced by developments in Tex-Mex. One noteworthy exception was the orquesta that the legendary Lalo Guerrero fronted for a time. As Guerrero himself admitted, he "mixed it all up," combining Tex-Mex with boogie and Latin American, including salsa. But, Guerrero was best known for his unique tunes, which fused music and linguistic elements from swing and . Most of these tunes were written by Guerrero himself. Some achieved immortality through the movie Zootsuit, produced in 1982 by the filmmaker and erstwhile activist Luis Valdez (for example, the tune "Marihuana Boogie").

The most influential orquestas continued to originate in Texas. In the 1960’s and 1970’s, which may well have been the peak years for the Mexican American orquesta, several groups emerged from the active tradition established in the Lone Star State. Foremost among these was Little Joe and the Latinaires, renamed Little Joe y la Familia in 1970.

An early picture of Little Joe y la Familia442

442 http://www.ticketsinventory.com/concert/little-joe-y-la-familia-tickets/ Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 490

La Familia exploited the Tex-Mex ranchero sound fashioned by Isidro López to its utmost, fusing it to American jazz and rock within the same musical piece. Little Joe and his brother Johnny combined their voices duet-fashion to create their own style of ranchera. Backing them were two trumpets, two saxophones, a trombone, and a rhythm section of bass, electric guitar, drums, and keyboards. This unique sound came to be known as La Onda Chicana (The Chicano Wave).

As fashioned by Little Joe y la Familia, La Onda Chicana spread rapidly throughout the Southwest and beyond. Other orquestas followed La Familia's lead, as more efforts were directed at creating a synthesis of ranchera and jazz/rock. Many of these efforts were remarkable for their effect, with particularly successful results being achieved by the orquestas of Sunny and the Sunliners, Latin Breed, and Tortilla Factory, all from Texas.

By the mid-1980’s, La Onda Chicana had receded from its watershed years, with the orquesta tradition generally suffering a noticeable decline. Beginning in the early 1980’s, the most notable sign of decline was the substitution of the horn section for synthesized keyboards. At first, these tried to imitate, synthetically, the sound of the trumpets, saxophones, and trombone, but eventually the keyboards developed their own synthesized sound, one closer in spirit to the conjunto, and this became the norm after about 1985. Except in Texas, where an entrenched tradition survived into the 1990’s, Mexican Americans growing up in more recent years have been less attracted by the old-fashioned orquesta.443

Chicken Scratch Chicken scratch (also known as waila music) is a kind of dance music developed by the Tohono O'odham people. The genre evolved out of acoustic fiddle bands in the Sonoran desert of southern Arizona. These bands began playing European and Mexican tunes in styles that included the polka, schottisch and . Chicken scratch is much like an interpretation of norteño music, for many chicken scratch bands still play polka songs with a distinctive flourish, and may also play the or conjunto. Chicken scratch dance is based on the "walking two step” or the “walking polka” and the emphasis is on very smooth gliding movements. Dancers may also perform the mazurka or the chote; always performed counterclockwise.

443 www.gale.com/free_resources

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A Chicken Scratch Album444

Chicken scratch is usually played with a band including alto saxophone, bass, guitar, drums and accordion, though the original style used only percussion, guitar and violin, with the accordion and saxophone added in the 1950’s. Its home is the Tohono O'odham Reservation, Pima Salt River Reservation and Gila River Reservation. The term waila comes from the Spanish word bailar, meaning “to dance.” The term “chicken scratch” comes from a description of traditional Tohono O'odham dance, which involves kicking the heels high in the air, which supposedly bears a resemblance to a chicken scratching. Two famous groups are the Joaquín Brothers and Los Papagos Molinas with Virgil Molina. The Annual Waila Festival in Tucson, Arizona is well-known, as is the Rock-A-Bye Music Fest in Casa Grande, Arizona.

Banda , (Mexican big band music) originated in the northwestern Mexican state of Sinaloa. In the early 1990's, the sound of bandas, with up to 16 pieces, known traditionally as Bandas Sinaloenses or Bandas Zacatequenses to identify their regional origins, experienced unprecedented popularity among Hispanics in the United States. Originally instrumental, this style was popularized by Banda el

444 http://store.canyonrecords.com/index.php?app=ecom&ns=catshow&ref=chicken_scratch_cd

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Recodo, Julio Preciado, and other major banda groups that started including lyrics and converting popular songs into this genre.

Banda music remains popular in California, all of Latin America, and any area in the U.S. where Mexican Americans live. The musical presentations are quite showy, as male group members and dancers wear cowboy outfits with wild colors, correas (leather strips engraved with the name of their home state on it), small horse whips and/or coiled ropes, handkerchiefs, and cowboy hats tilted in the proper manner. The ladies wear Western apparel such as cowboy hat, big loop earrings, sleeveless shirts tied above the waist, fringed shorts and knee-high boots.445 Band members may twirl trumpets overhead or ride saxophones like horses, and constantly dance. Today, bands consist of a rhythm section of drums, electric bass or tuba, synthesizer(s), and several trumpets, saxophones, and trombones. The most popular banda groups have been Banda Machos, Superbandido, and Banda Vallarta. These groups can command over $40,000 for one performance. Record sales are hard to confirm because many of the sales in Latin American stores are not typically "tracked" by sales monitors, and numerous incidents of pirating tapes and selling them at very low prices occur. Banda Machos sold over 300,000 copies of their "Casimira" album, with many additional sales not counted.

446 Banda Machos has been together since 1990

445 Christine Gonzalez, "Banda Rides Wave of Hispanic Pride" the Wall Street Journal, 1994. 446 http://www.radionotas.com/gxcon/image/source0000001473/IMA0000550000016223.jpg

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There are two main ways to dance banda. The first is El Zapateado, reserved for faster dances, and in slower songs, La Quebradita is used. The El Zapateado involves lots of heel work, swinging arm movements, and close contact between dance partners, while the La Quebradita combines the flamenco, the lambada, salsa dances, the Texas two step, and the tango – with the trademark being the move where the male swings the female partner from side to side while bending so far backwards that her hair touches the floor. As one can imagine, it takes some athleticism to perform this move well.

Música durangunese (often simply called ) is a type of music which originated from the northern Mexican state of Durango. Located just east of Sinaloa, where banda began, its music is based on both brass and wind instruments and includes the clarinet, trumpet, flute, and drums. It is usually played at a rapid tempo and relies more on percussion than banda does. In the 2000’s, musica duranguense rose to fame as it gained position as an equal with banda and norteño. Duranguense bands play mainly , polkas, and cúmbias. Some of the most popular artists include Grupo Montez, Patrulla 81, Alacranes Musicál, Horoscopos de Durango, and Brazeros Musicál.

The following bands are in big part responsible for giving this style their current status. From pioneering groups such as Banda El Recodo to contemporary stars like Julion Alvarez y Su Norteno band, the following are today's most influential Mexican music bands:

El Trono de Mexico Although this band is fairly new, El Trono de Mexico has been able to capture a spot as one of today's most influential Mexican music bands. This popular Duranguense group, which was born in 2004, became a sensation with the 2006 album El Muchacho Alegre. Some of the band's hits include titles like "Ganas De Volver A Amar," "Te Recordare" and "La Ciudad Del Olvido."

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La Original Banda El Limon de Salvador Lizarraga Since 1965, this group has been shaping the sounds of Banda Music in Mexico and the US. Led by Salvador Lizarraga Sanchez, this band from the town El Limón de los Peraza has produced a huge repertoire of hits that includes tracks like "El Mejor Perfume," "Abeja Reina" and "Cabecita Dura."

Banda Sinaloense MS This band was born in 2003 in the city of Mazatlan, Sinaloa. In spite of being fairly new to the Banda scene, this group has produced a decent repertoire that has touched all kinds of traditional and popular Mexican styles such as corrido, cúmbia and Ranchera. Top songs from Banda Sinaloense MS include tracks such as "El Mechon" and "Mi Olvido."

Los Horoscopos de Durango Formed in 1975 by Armando Terrazas, this band is currently centered around his two daugthers Marison and Virginia. A leading name of the Duranguense scene, Los Horoscopos de Durango is a pioneering band of the tamborazo, a style that combines tuba, drums and saxophone. Hits from this band include tracks such as "La Mosca" and "Dos Locos."

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Julion Alvarez y Su Norteno Banda Led by the young and talented Julion Alvarez, this band reached mainstream success with the release of its 2007 album Corazon Magico. Since then, the group has been one of the most exciting players of the Banda Norteño world. Top hits by Julion Alvarez y Su Norteno Banda include tracks like "Corazon Magico," "Besos Y Caricias" and "Ni Lo Intentes."

Banda Machos Known as La Reina de las Bandas (The Queen of Bands), this group has been shaping the sounds of popular Mexican music for over two decades. Banda Machos is also considered one of the pioneers of the so- called dancing style known as quebradita. Hits by Machos include "Al Gato Y Al Raton" "La Culebra" and "Me Llamo Raquel."

Banda Los Recoditos Born in 1989, Banda Los Recoditos is one of the most popular bands from Sinaloa. The group was formed by friends and relatives of some of the members from Banda El Recodo. Some of the most popular songs produced by this band include hits like "Ando Bien Pedo," "No Te Quiero Perder" and "Para Ti Solita." Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 496

La Adictiva Banda San Jose de Mesillas La Adictiva Banda San Jose de Mesillas has captured audiences all over the place thanks to its pleasant and sophisticated sound. Top songs by this popular group include tracks like "10 Segundos," "Nada Iguales," "El Pasado Es Pasado" and the super hit "Te Amo Y Te Amo."

La Arrolladora Banda El Limon de Rene Camacho La Arrolladora Banda El Limon de Rene Camacho is one of the most influential names of the Musica de Banda scene in Mexico and the US. With nearly 50 years of musical history, this band has produced a rich repertoire of more than 30 albums. Some of the best songs by La Arrolladora include tracks such as "Ya Es Muy Tarde," "Llamada De Mi Ex" and "Media Naranja."

Banda El Recodo A legendary name not only in Mexican music but also in Latin music, Banda El Recodo has been producing songs since 1938 when it was founded by musician Cruz Lizarraga. Known as La Madre de Todas Las Bandas (The Mother of All Bands), El Recodo has produced over 180 albums and memorable recording alongside legendary stars such as Jose Alfredo Jimenez and Juan Gabriel. Famous songs from this band include tracks such as "Te Presumo," "Te Quiero A Morir" and "Y Llegaste Tu."447

447 http://latinmusic.about.com/od/tejanonorteno/tp/Top-Mexican-Music-Bands.htm

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The Latin Tinge Latin American music has long influenced American jazz, rhythm and blues, rock, pop and country music. A popular term for this influence is called the “Latin tinge.” Earlier we mentioned how the syncopated music around 1900 added a habanera beat against a two-beat to create “ragged time” or ragtime. The was a worldwide success by the 1930’s. Tango dancers and records could be found from Los Angeles to Beijing. Additionally, artists such as Carmen Miranda, Desi Arnaz, Xavier Cugat, and Pérez Prado ("The Mambo King") were popular with audiences of all cultures. 's first hit as a member of the "Gumm Sisters", was La Cucaracha, right down to the line about marijuana.

It was common in dance halls in the 1930’s and 1940’s for a Latin orchestra, such as that of Vincent Lopez, to alternate with a big band because dancers insisted on it. Latin music was extremely popular with dancers – the samba, paso doble, rumba, mambo, and even the conga. In the 1950’s, Perez Prado made the Cha-cha-cha famous, and the Afro-Cuban jazz of Dizzy Gillespie opened many ears to the harmonic, melodic, and rhythmic possibilities of Latin music that remains influential in salsa.

The "Latin tinge" was also a common feature of rhythm and blues in the 1950’s. Many an American band has added a conga player, maracas, or other Latin percussion for just that reason. The monster hit Little Darling (by the Marigolds) was driven by the clave beat and Chuck Berry's Havana Moon was a great success. Ritchie Valens (born Ricardo Valenzuela) blew the roof off the hit parade with his remake of La Bamba, originally a Mexican wedding song.

Likewise, Tex-Mex and Tejano styles featured the conjunto sound, resulting in such important music as Tequila by The Champs, 96 Tears by Question Mark and the Mysterians, songs by Sam the Sham & the Pharaohs, Thee Midniters, and the many combinations led by Doug Sahm, including the Sir Douglas Quintet and the Texas Tornados. The Texas Tornados featured Freddy Fender, who brought to country music. Flaco Jiménez is a genuine conjunto hero, a third-generation accordionist whose grandfather learned the instrument from German settlers in Texas. The supergroup was also known for their use of “Spanglish” with hits such as ¿Hey Baby Que Paso?

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A 1996 photo of the band Texas Tornados (left to right): Flaco Jimenez, Doug Sahm, Freddy Fender and Augie Meyers.448

Singer/guitarist Johnny Rodriguez was the first Latin American country music star. Onetime character on Adam 12 and yet another member of the country music pantheon who has done time, Johnny Rodriguez flourished in the mid-1970’s and well into the 1980’s playing traditionally-flavored cowboy country. With a nasal, barely-there rasp and lush, mid-tempo backing, he falls somewhere between the smooth Honky-Tonk of Lefty Frizzel and the homegrown of Willie Nelson.449

448 http://blogs.usatoday.com/weather/tornadoes/index.html 449 http://image.listen.com/img/356x237/9/6/3/5/855369_356x237.jpg

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Latin American Influences in U.S. Rock Bands With the late 1960's and early 1970's came the dawning of Latin American rock bands. Groups like El Chicano, Malo, and Santana popularized a brand of rock that incorporated Mexican heritage, Latin percussion, rhythms, and some Spanish singing.

450 At Woodstock, 1969, Carlos Santana (left) plays maracas during a long percussion solo break. The band at that time was known for long, extended sections of guitar, organ, and percussion improvisations.

450 http://www.alvinlee.de/page8hs1/Santana-Woodstock2.jpg Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 500

451 Los Lobos has had great success with their eclectic Latin and R&B-based music since the mid-1980’s.

There are many popular singers of Latin American descent, and some incorporate their traditional musical background more than others. Recently, Linda Ronstadt has returned to her cultural roots in her albums.

451 http://musicpages.webz.cz/data/texty/textimages/los_lobos.jpg

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452 Pop artist Selena (Quintanilla) was a Texan who became quite popular among Mexicans, Mexican-Americans, and non-Mexican Americans in the 1990’s.

While Latin American popular music has been around for many years, its surge in popularity to the mainstream may have come at least partially as a result of the untimely death of the hugely popular Tex Mex singer Selena in 1995, who was murdered by her fan-club president. Jennifer Lopez's discovery as a talented actress and artist initially came from her title role as Selena in the biographical movie of the same name.

The 1980’s saw Colombian cúmbia become even more popular in Mexico than in its native land, and it was by far the dominant genre throughout the decade before banda’s surge in the 1990’s. In the early 1970’s and 1980’s Mexican bands like Rigo Tovar y su Costa Azul and Los Bukis topped the charts, and by the end of the decade helped to inspire bands such as Yonics, Bronco, El Gran Silencio and Los Kumbia Kings.

Today, if one were to watch Univision, or other international Spanish-speaking television networks, one will find a considerable number of variety shows that feature top talent from Mexico and Latin America. Latino groups play rap, heavy metal, country, soul, rhythm and blues, and every pop or Latin American musical style imaginable. There tend to be more shows that feature live musical concerts on these stations than in the English TV stations. Two significant shows are the

452 http://www.selenaforever.com/SelenaPictures6/Selena0153.gif

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still very popular Sabado Gigante (Giant Saturday) and the Johnny Canales Show from Corpus Christi, Texas, which aired on the Univision and later Telemundo networks from 1983-2005.

The longest running variety show in television history according to the Guinness Book of World Records. Three fun-filled hours of comedy skits, amateur talent contests, emotional family reunions and performances by the biggest Latin music stars. It is the #1 program on Saturday nights among Hispanics, and rated as more of a “co-viewing event” for moms and kids 2-11 than , Dancing with the Stars and The Voice.453

453 http://corporate.univision.com/media-property/sabado-gigante-giant-saturday/

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Johnny Canales454

In the Latino world these two shows were equivalent to the David Letterman Show and The Tonight Show respectively, although the emphasis is much more on the music than in the U.S. Typically, musicians in Latin America receive far more attention, advertisement, and air time than their U.S. counterparts. Contemporary Latin American music is now proving to be a very big business, and major record companies have been investing in Latin American music for distribution in the U.S.

As Tejanos and Mexican-Americans throughout the U.S. have become more affluent, and as immigrants continue to renew and reinforce Mexican traditions, the spectrum of musical and cultural expressions has widened. Mexican-American music is today remarkably varied and diverse, ranging from traditional, regional, and rural groups to modern urban groups which include elaborately arranged mariachis, smooth trios, techno bandas, orchestras of every variety, and Spanish rappers. There are also legions of pop grupos (groups) featuring sexy singers and utilizing synthesizers along with all the latest gadgets of the global pop music world.455

During the second part of the 1990’s, Latin music exploded into the mainstream thanks to popular artists like Ricky Martin and Christina Aguilera.

454 http://www.blackcattalent.com/Photo%202.gif 455 Chris Strachwitz, ed., liner notes for "Mexican-American Border Music, Vol. 1, an Introduction: Pioneer Recording Artists 1928-1958. Arhoolie Folklyric 7001, p. 3. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 504

Puerto Rican Ricky Martin has been a superstar in Latin America and the U.S. since the early 1990’s. 456 New York-born Christina Aguilera has been a central pop figure since 1999. 457

Joe King Carrasco y las Coronas play punk rock Tex-Mex style. The same period saw a relaxation of regulations that restricted imports of foreign music. The result was the appearance of Mexican rock bands like Café Tacuba (a.k.a. Café Tacvba), Los Caifanes (who blurred the line between traditional Mexican music and rock), the incredibly eclectic Maná, and Maldita Vecindad y los Hijos del Quinto Patio (the damned neighborhood and the sons of the fifth patio). The latter are "grandfathers" to the Latin-Ska movement, with today’s Panteón Rococó as the most prominent band. Mexico City has also a considerable movement of bands playing surf rock inspired in their outfits by the wrestling show Lucha Libre, with the group Lost Acapulco initiating and leading the movement.

Hip-hop is quite popular among Mexican youths in both Mexico and the United States. There are Latin hip-hop artists like J Lo (Jennifer Lopez) and Big Pun, and salsa and merengue crossover artists such as Marc Anthony. Another important Latin American singer and actress is Pilar Montenegro. Some of the most famous Mexican hip-hop artists are David Rolas, Crooked Stilo, and Control Machete. Other artists/groups contributing to the explosion are Rage against the Machine’s , Tha Mexakinz/Malafia, The Psycho Realm, Chino XL, Brownside, Cuban Link, Brown Town Looters, Rhyme Poetic Mafia, Cisco the Frisco Mack, Mr. Shadow, Aztlan Underground, Conejo and Tattoo Ink, Los

456 http://www.rickymartin.com/officialphotos/30 457 http://www.people.com/people/gallery/0,,20011548_1,00.html

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Tumbados, Mafiosos, 5th Battalion, OTW, Street Platoon, Lethal Assassins Clique, G-Fellas, Latino Velvet, El Nuevo Xol, Rhyme Asylum, and Wicked Minds.458

Reggaeton, from Puerto Rico, is also rapidly becoming popular among Mexican youths and is increasingly influencing Mexican-American hip-hop rhythms. There are also several hip hop movements underway such as Tijuana's large collective of local hip hop talent in Tijuana, BC Mexico, http://www.reverbnation.com/tijuanarap. As a result of increasing popularity, major record companies now have branches specializing in the Latin American market.

Electronic music is prominent in Northern Mexico, with the Collective and the Static Discos Label, Nopalbeat in Guadalajara, and Discos Konfort, Filtro and Noiselab Collective in Mexico City. Electronic music has been getting stronger in Mexico over the last 10 years and has been heavily influenced by artists in the U.S. and Europe. Electronic music parties, “raves” and related events are quite popular among young people in Guadalajara, Cancun, Monterrey, Ciudad Juarez, Puebla and Tijuana.

With all of the folk music introduced into the U.S., it’s easy to forget that Mexico also has a long tradition of classical music that reaches as far back as the 16th century, when it was a colony of Spain. The music of Juan Gutierrez de Padilla and Hernando Franco has been increasingly recognized as a significant contribution to New World culture. In the 19th century the waltzes of Juventino Rosas reached world recognition. In the 20th century, Carlos Chavez, a composer of considerable reputation, wrote symphonies, ballets, and more. Another recognized composer is Silvestre Revueltas, who wrote such pieces as "The Night of the Mayas", "Homenaje a García Lorca", "Sensemayá" (based on a poem by Nicolas Guillen), "Janitzio" and "Redes". Manuel M. Ponce is recognized as an important composer for the Spanish classical guitar, responsible for widening the repertoire for this instrument. José Pablo Moncayo, with compositions such as "Huapango", and Blas Galindo with "Sones de Mariachi", are also recognized as adapters of Mexican songs into symphonic music.

458 http://www.brownpride.com/latinrap/default.asp

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The Caribbean Haiti: The Music of Vodou As we now look at how music of the Caribbean influences the U.S., we first turn to Haiti, where slave revolts and political upheavals created a large influx of Haitians to the U.S. in the late eighteenth century into the nineteenth century. The geographically convenient seaport of New Orleans, arguably the melting pot for the formation of jazz, received large numbers of Haitian immigrants, thus; the impact of the evolving Haitian Vodou music and culture was well established long before jazz became a household name. New York, with its economic promises, has also become a major locale for the continuing development and evolution of Haitian- based music and culture. There is no question that the musical characteristics of this African-based society, having undergone a metamorphosis in Haiti and the U.S., played a large part in the formation of the primal developments of early jazz, and continues to influence and revitalize music in the U.S. today. Additionally, Haitians incorporate music from other parts of Latin America and the world into their music.

Typically, the mere mention of Vodou to the uninformed reader creates a wealth of negative stereotypical images of charms, black magic, zombies, and even human sacrifice! It would be difficult to find a culture that has been more misrepresented, distorted, and subjected to bias than the religion of Vodou, Voudon, or Vodoun, known more commonly today as Voodoo, a distortion of the Dahomean word Vodu, meaning God, or spirit. The spelling (Vodou) used here corresponds to the nomenclature used by the Haitians to describe their religion. This religion of staggering complexity, over 6,000 years old, was brought to the Caribbean Islands, Brazil, and the United States via the slave trade from West Africa. "The greatest influx of Vodou was in Haiti, where the amalgamation of the various African peoples mixed with Catholicism and produced this fascinating combination of religions, herbalism, and culture."459

The religion must be discussed from a historical standpoint, so that one may understand how some of the myths that still permeate this religion came about, and to reveal the complexities facing scholars today with what is largely unexplored religious, cultural, and musical territory.

459Jacques D' Argent, Voodoo (Los Angeles: Sherbourne Press, Inc., 1970) 12-13. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 507

From this general map of the Caribbean, one can see that the island of Santo Domingo (later named Hispaniola) consists of Haiti and the Dominican Republic.460

From the time Christopher Columbus set foot on Saint-Domingue (Santo Domingo) in 1492, the island underwent a complete transformation, for the Taino Arawak Indians were subjected to a life of slavery and cruelties that decimated the population. The Spanish established slave trade practices that provided the basis for a ruthless plantation economy. The western portion of the island was later ceded to France in 1697, but the numbers of slaves continued to increase substantially, until blacks outnumbered whites eleven to one by 1790.461 During this time period, tensions grew to an all time high, as maroon colonies of runaway slaves (oblivious to European influences) increasingly harassed plantation owners, and laws taking away rights and privileges previously afforded to the growing numbers of affranchis (mixed bloods) were rigidly enforced. Under the leadership of Boukman, a maroon Vodou priest, slave rebellions increased, which led to a full scale revolution resulting in the driving out of the French army by 1804. The republic of Haiti, meaning "mountainous country" was established.

460 http://www.greece-map.net/caribbean/caribbean-map.gif 461Leslie Desmangles, The Faces of the Gods: Vodou and Roman Catholicism in Haiti (Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press): 21. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 508

The ceremonies of Vodou had been suppressed as much as possible throughout the early period, and the Roman Catholic dominance that appeared to be prevalent on the surface never actually occurred. Due to “anti-superstition” laws, Vodou religious ceremonies were held in secret, and the images of the Catholic Church that intermingled with the lwas and practices of Vodou did so in appearance only, but not in actual religious beliefs.

After the revolution, the ruling class of affranchis was not sympathetic to Vodou religious practices, and the official state religion became Roman Catholic. However, as the nineteenth century progressed, the missionary system declined, political instability drastically altered the Haitian economy, and the plantation system was superseded by numerous individual farmers owning small land plots. Vodou, meanwhile, continued to exist in its veiled form. The Haitian government periodically attempted to suppress Vodou, but the Catholic Church became increasingly tolerant of Vodou in the twentieth century. Although the regime of Francois (Papa Doc) Duvalier was filled with brutality, the Catholic Church took on a decidedly more Haitian flavor, which has since allowed Vodou to be more openly practiced. In the 1980’s there was an “unofficial recognition” of Vodou as a significant element in Haitian culture."462 In 2003, the biggest breakthrough of all occurred:

Port-au-Prince, April 5, 2003 -(AHP)- Vodou is henceforth to be fully recognised as a religion, empowered to fulfil its mission throughout the country consistent with the constitution and the laws of the Republic, pending the adoption of a law relating to its legal status.

The presidential decree dated April 4, 2003 relating to this decision indicates that all Vodou chiefs, temple officials, officials at a sacred site, as well as all Vodou organisations or associations are empowered to file a request for recognition by the Ministry of Culture and Religious Affairs.

According to the decree, the recognition granted by the Ministry of Culture and Religious Affairs will have the specific effect of enlisting assistance and protection from any constituted authority. The temples, sacred sites, and Vodou organisations or associations, endowed with the rights and prerogatives associated with their functioning, may obtain qualified support from the State, the decree indicates. Vodou chiefs and temple or sacred site officials are invited to take an oath before the presiding judge of the appropriate civil tribunal. Once they have taken the oath, the Vodou chiefs can be empowered to officiate at baptisms, marriages and funerals…

462Ibid., 57. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 509

…Hundreds of thousands; indeed millions of Haitians practice Vodou, even when they are officially recognised as devout Catholics or Protestants. For a long time (and perhaps today as well) and for various reasons a great number of Haitians have tried to conceal the fact that they consulted Vodou priests and priestesses. Known practitioners of Vodou have at times found themselves barred from, for example, receiving baptism, first communion, marriage, or funeral rites. Children of practitioners have also found that they might not be admitted into certain Catholic or Protestant schools.463

It is essential to define what Vodou is, and what it is not. Given is a definition of the religion accepted by the Vodou community in Africa and the Caribbean from Oswan and Miriam Chamani, a Vodou priest and priestess in New Orleans, Louisiana:

Vodou represents the invisible power that created all things, and is all visible things represented by the invisible power. . . The creation is not separated from the creator, nor is the creator separate from the creation. This is the reason why Voodooists (Vodouisants) believe there is power in trees, rocks, animals, birds; in the sea and rivers, thunder and lightning, and most importantly in themselves. Vodou is a religion of the universe. It works through the energies and intelligences which are directed and manifested of ourselves and our universes. These energies and intelligences are personified in all religions as gods, goddesses, angels, archangels, demons, etc. In Vodou these energies are called loas (lwas), or orishas.464

One of the ultimate goals of the Vodou religion is spirit possession, which typically created fear for many to venture into this culture other than to classify Vodou as a primitive, animistic cult. Negative references remain in modern times, such as when former President George Bush Sr. coined the phrase "voodoo economics". Such inferences are not only perpetuating the religion in a negative light, but continue the racist idea that European-based religions are civilized and proper, while African-based religions are somehow the opposite. The infusion of the "Holy Spirit" is not objectionable to many in the Christian religion, thus; what seems so revolting to some is the fact that in Vodou, this infusion of a Holy Spirit, or lwa, occurs in the physical sense through the dancing and imitation of the lwa a Vodouisant hopes to become possessed by. If possession occurs, the physical movements can become quite dramatic. Further alienation may be created by the fact that the musical background is not a keyboard instrument and a choir in four part harmony, but drums, rattles and voices in a highly syncopated, call-response format.

463 http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/43a/522.html

464Oswan and Miriam Chamani, "What Does the Word Voodoo Really Mean?", Voodoo Realist Newsletter, vol. 1, 3-7. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 510

The spirit Gede possesses a woman and dances with the drummers. 465

Vodou is no longer an African religion in the pure sense. Like the African-based Brazilian religions, Vodou has undergone significant changes in the past five hundred years in the homeland and in the U.S. Due to the secrecy forced upon Vodou in the past, many of the ceremonies were considerably shortened in length, and the times of such ceremonies would occur late in the evening and into the early morning hours. This also occurs in the U.S., where the understanding and tolerance of Vodou remains mostly in a pathetic state due to negative images created by the media, particularly movies. Many of the ceremonies were adapted by necessity to the Christian calendar dates rather than the traditional African dates. The use of symbols from the Catholic Church is common, but they take on new meanings in the ounfò (Vodou temple), such as in the use of major Catholic religious figures to correspond to a lwa.

Lwas are grouped into pantheons, or nations, which are called nanchons. The Rada, Petro, and Kongo (and in some provinces, Ibo) nanchons are by far the best known today.466 The Petro nanchon has a more violent reputation, stemming from its origins in the days of the Haitian revolution, yet, every lwa has a mirror image in another nanchon, hence; Legba, keeper of the gates, the lwa of the crossroads, the sun, has a counterpart in Petro as Kafou, the moon, the destroyer of life. Legba is represented by St. Peter, and is commemorated on ' Day. The most significant lwas, their primary purpose, symbol, and corresponding Catholic figure are given below:

465 http://svr1.cg971.fr/lameca/dossiers/Vodou_music/images/Possession.jpg 466Desmangles, The Faces of the Gods, 95. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 511

Major Lwas of Vodou Lwa Purpose Symbol Catholic Figure Legba Gatekeeper to heaven Sun St. Peter Gede Rules over death, life Moon St. Gerard Zaka Lord of agriculture Peasant St. Isadore Damballah Lwa of eternal motion Snake St. Patrick Ezili Divine/human conception Clay jar Virgin Mary Ogou Enhancing divine contact Machete St. Jacques Agoue Ruler of the sea Fish St. Ulrich Bondye Creator of the universe Aged man God

Another symbol frequently misunderstood in Vodou is the meaning behind the use of the cross, which is not a Christian symbol.

In the cross, Vodouisants see not only the earth's surface as comprehended by the four cardinal points of the universe, but also the intersection of the two worlds, the profane world as symbolized by the horizontal line, and Vilokan (mythological city of the lwas) as represented by the vertical line. . . The point at which the two lines intersect is the pivotal "zero-point" in the crossing of the two worlds. It is a point of contact at which profane existence, including time, stops, and sacred beings from Vilokan invade the peristil (roofed structure supported by four poles in the temple) through the body of their possessed devotees.467

Each lwa has a mirror image, or counterpart of itself, which is reflected in the rituals and the vèvès, (geometric figures drawn at many ceremonies to invoke spirits). Each person confronts a cosmic mirror at birth and the reflection seen is the spirit that lives within throughout life; the gwo bon anj (big good spirit), and the ti bon anj (little good spirit).

467Ibid., 104-5. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 512

Voodoo vèvès are symbolic designs used in ritual, drawn on the ground with cornmeal prior to or during a Voodoo ceremony. These designs represent the various powers and attributes of the Loa (God, Goddess, Spirit, Orisha) to be invoked, and serve as a focal point for invocation and offerings. Several vèvès of different Loa may be drawn for one ceremony. The designs incorporate well recognized traditional elements, but reflect also the individual intentions and creative skill of the Houngan or Mambo. Common elements in the various vèvès are eight-pointed stars that resemble asterisks, and four armed crosses. The eight- pointed stars are from the Rada tradition. The small four-armed crosses are Petro crosses and are mostly decorative.468 There are hundreds of loas, so there are hundreds of vèvès.

Another misunderstanding by those not familiar with Vodou ceremonies is the offering of rum to a lwa. The use of this is strictly ceremonial, and is not intended to be swallowed by participants for the purposes of getting drunk. The most appalling aspect of Vodou for many is usually the sacrifice of an animal to the lwas, such as a small goat, or chicken. In Haiti, the luxury of a supermarket is only for the privileged few, and animals must be slaughtered on residential property. They use animals that are designated as food anyway for a symbolic representation of an offering. In preparation for Vodou ceremonies, animals are treated well before being killed. Just as they transfer their material life to humans, they transfer their spiritual life to the lwas.469 After the ceremony, animals are always prepared for immediate consumption in a feast. Those who call for the outlawing of such practices should also monitor the procedures of slaughterhouses around the world and will find the treatment of animals to be far worse than would ever occur in a religious ceremony!

Other myths are that those who practice Vodou engage in human sacrifice, black magic, sorcery, or devil worship. These elements fall under the category of hoodoo, or "black magic", and have nothing to do with the religion of Vodou. Superstitions

468 http://www.mysticvoodoo.com/voodoo-veves.htm 469 Louis Wilcken, The Drums of Vodou (Tempe, AZ: White Cliffs Media, Inc.,): 28. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 513

attributed to jazz musicians such as Jelly Roll Morton, for example, have at times been mixed up with a fear of the Vodou religion, when it was actually a fear of black magical practices, or curses. In New Orleans today, stores sell "charms" and other potions that are labeled as "voodoo potions."

Now let’s look at the music of Vodou. Despite endless variations in regional, ceremonial, and musical practices, a sufficient number of unifying characteristics of musical language, dancing, and their interconnection with spiritual aspects may be found. Like jazz today, group interaction and call-response techniques are an integral part of the music of Vodou. The skills required for this high degree of interaction take considerable training and practice in the oral tradition, the same manner in which professional jazz musicians have learned the craft throughout history. The vehicle for this music in Vodou is in the drums, other percussion instruments, and vocals.

When one hears the battery of the drums, it is not difficult to ascertain their rhythmic complexity, yet, they are also of prime importance to Vodou spirit possession. In Haiti, drums are made of hollowed out logs covered with cowhide or goatskin, usually from a sacrificial animal. The drums are typically painted with vèvè, and are played as part of a set, or battery. The Rada group uses three conically shaped drums, the Petro uses two conical drums, and the Kongo uses three cylindrical drums. Drums range from eighteen inches high to four feet high, and many are played tilted off the ground slightly. In the U.S., however, particularly in crowded urban areas, there are ceremonies that do not incorporate drums due to the noise problems from neighbors, or of drowning out of vocals in dwellings with poor acoustics. The most formidable problem facing Vodou drummers in the U.S. is obtaining the proper instruments, for the manufacture of conventional Vodou drums is extremely rare in the U.S., not to mention they do not fare well in the colder climates.470 Frequently, conga drums are used as a replacement.

470Ibid., 39. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 514

Rada Drum Petro Drum 471

asons472

Other percussion instruments frequently used are the sacred rattle (ason), which is used to either set the tempo or to signal the battery to stop playing according to which part of a ceremony is taking place. The ason is not continually played

471 http://svr1.cg971.fr/lameca/dossiers/Vodou_music/images/RadaDrum.jpg 472 www.amnh.org/exhibitions/Vodou/tools5.html Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 515

throughout many songs, for its main purpose is ceremonial, and not musical. The ogan is a gong (or iron stick or hoe blade) that is a guideline or reference for other instruments, but is not always present, meaning that, like some rhythm sections of jazz since 1960, the basic pulse given by the ogan is often implied, but not heard. Conch shells (lanbi), whistles, the bas (tambourine), and whips also were used depending on the nanchon and the ceremony.

Drummers may be initiated into Vodou, but this is not required. Most drummers are male, while many women hold the powerful position of priestess (mambo), which is often an even more elevated position than the priest (oungan). In Haiti, drums are given special treatment, in that they are considered to be sacred, and the way that they are made often requires strict rules in terms of rituals that take place while their construction is in progress. In ceremonies, possessions can occur without drums, but if percussionists are being used and possession does occur, it is important for the drummers to continue playing. The complexity that results from the stacking of rhythm upon rhythm is designed to bring about possession, and any participant that shows signs of being taken over or "mounted" by a lwa, will bring about a kase (break that superimposes a new rhythm) to literally pound a spirit into that member.473

If possession occurs, the kase is used to break the rhythmic figure of the lead drum, usually by incorporating a pulse that contradicts the pattern. The dancer also has a kase for each dance. In Vodou rituals, the drummer plays the kase first, and the dancer uses it as a cue to break his/her movement.474

Although some a cappella songs are done “at liberty” without a steady pulse, most Vodou music has a steady pulse from beginning to end. Once the percussion instruments establish a steady beat, tempos usually range from medium to fast. The superimposition of duple and triple meter is a common trait, although controversy exists as to what extent the concept of meter exists in the minds of the musicians, if at all. The form of Vodou songs tend to be cyclical, related only to however long a certain ceremony needs to be performed, and not a second longer.

Drums may be struck in a variety of ways with the hands or sticks, and often, drums are played with one hand and one stick. Drums are usually tuned in fourths, but this tuning is not necessarily absolute, and does not relate to the key of a vocal in any planned sense.

Each nanchon has its own ensemble patterns, and these patterns are played in a certain order. The complexity of the ensemble patterns vary to an extent, yet,

473 Louis Wilcken, The Drums of Vodou (Tempe, AZ: White Cliffs Media, Inc.,): 48. 474Ibid., 52. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 516

between the rhythms of the bas, ason, ogan, and three drums (if Rada or Kongo), it is typical to hear as many as seven different rhythms simultaneously, with approximately equal division between duple and triple meter! The written accounts of the weekly drumming sessions in Congo Square in 19th and early twentieth century New Orleans is well-documented, and a great number of these gatherings consisted of Vodou drummers and practitioners. When one considers the similar high degree of syncopation prevalent in many jazz groups, the complexity is certainly comparable. The combined rhythmic input of a jazz rhythm section of piano, bass, guitar, drums, (Latin percussion), horns in various combinations, and vocalist(s) does approximate the complexity in the Vodou battery, as well as of other traditional African music.

Voodoo Drummers of the group Beau Flamme475

475 http://willgilgrass.wordpress.com/2010/02/11/cardiff-charity-cd-to-help-the-haiti-relief-effort/

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As one listens to a battery of Vodou drums, it is good practice for those unfamiliar with this music to choose one part at a time, listen to it, then join in by tapping the rhythm with the hands on the table, or lap. By the time all parts have been practiced individually, one will have a new perspective as to how all parts relate to the whole. Vodou drummers memorize patterns and then hear the piece as a whole entity; the sum of the individual parts.

The concept of "composition" does not exist within the music of Vodou. As in Native American music, songs come to Vodouisants in the form of dreams or in a ceremony where a lwa teaches a member of the society a song. The individual truly believes that the lwa is the composer of the song, and that no human being would consider taking credit for the invention of words, melodies, or rhythmic patterns.

The great majority of songs contain words, sung in Haitian Kreyòl, which is a verbal, non-written language, and these words are generally sung to one of the spirit families, or refer to some sort of communication between the lwa and a human. The vocal sounds are no longer distinctly African or European, but a mixture. Scales or modes found in recorded songs are major and minor pentatonic (five note scales), while others are similar to European major and minor scales, or their respective modes. Other incomplete scales of three to six notes may be found, and there are also some metabolic songs, where two modes exist simultaneously.476 Distinct alterations of intonation also allow an African melodic tonality to prevail, and, as in the African traditional music, the concept of harmony does not exist in traditional Vodou songs.

Lengths of phrases (musical ideas, or sentences) tend to correspond with one of the drum patterns. Typically, the sensitive drum ensemble listens very carefully to the phrasing of the oundjènikon (Vodou song specialist), thus; the relationship between vocalist and ensemble is hardly arbitrary. Most songs consist of only three to five phrases of text, but the amount of repetition will vary according to the specific ceremony being performed. The rhythms of the phrases are not nearly as complex as those of the drums, yet when the call-response sequences are done with the full drum battery; the overall sound represents an additional rhythmic part on top of the other seven parts, creating a very rhythmically complex ensemble.

As with jazz, an amount of variation away from the established rhythms does occur, but the established rhythms are for the most part protected. As in African music, and much of jazz, once a rhythmic "groove" is established, performers stray from the norm only to certain degrees. In the Vodou ensemble, various parts may alter the established rhythm somewhat, but not far enough to disrupt the overall

476Ibid., 95. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 518

pattern. Because the rhythms are complex enough already, it is not feasible for everyone to start improvising, or the result would be chaos. The improvisation in the vocal is about the same in that the melody is generally not strayed from too far, but embellishments and slight variations do occur with each phrase. In the call-response format, the group will copy the leader upon occasion, and on other songs, the response is the same while the leader changes lines. At other times, the leader and chorus will have completely separate lines. The singing is very conversational in nature, and sometimes the length of the phrase responded to is rather long, particularly in opening invocations before the drums begin. Most songs begin with the vocals alone, with one or more call-response phrases occurring before the drums enter, and when they do, the combined syncopation can be very confusing to the novice listener.

Dance is an inseparable part of African based music, and Vodou is no exception. Each song to the various lwas has its own dance, which, in many cases is in imitation of the characteristics of the lwa sung about. Vodouisants do not merely dance in any fashion, for each of the dances have distinct foot and arm movements to each type of song, and some movements correspond specifically to an exact rhythm of one of the drum parts. Only when a dancer is possessed do some of the "wild" motions famous in descriptions of Vodou ceremonies apply.

When one experiences a ceremony, and views the complete materialization of a religion through the music; in drumming, singing, dancing, and visual imagery, it is an unforgettable experience. My wife and I were granted a personal ceremony of blessing at a Vodou temple in New Orleans, and can attest from experience that even one drum, vocals, rattle, and dancing can have a mesmerizing and positive effect when performed with the spirituality and love that was given to us on that memorable day. The complete union of religion, dancing, and music can occur even with a small group.

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477 This appears to be the beginning of a Vodou Ceremony

In urban and rural areas of the U.S., a surprisingly large number of Vodouisants or voodooists exist; unexpected only in the sense that the religion is still largely secretive. Only in the recent past have a few courageous practitioners ventured forth to share their Vodou culture to those who are sincerely interested. Vodou temples in Philadelphia, New York, Miami, New Orleans, and other cities now welcome the sincere public. A full conversion to the religion is not expected or required in any manner, for it is the newfound sharing of cultural ideas that is the primary interest of these places.

The music of Vodou is very illustrative of how African-based instruments, polyrhythms, polymeters, melodies, intonation, dance, religion, and culture all formed the basis of many concepts found in early jazz roots, as they evolved and continue to evolve in the Caribbean and the United States. Today, musical developments in the U.S. have "returned the favor" to the Caribbean (and Africa) by influencing the music coming from these areas. One can hear a group such as Rara Machine, a Haitian group that combines elements of jazz, rock, Vodou, and African styles to form exciting hybrid music. Musicians like Boukman Eksperyans, Boukan Ginen and Manno Charlemagne incorporated reggae, rock and funk rhythms, continuing in spite of governmental pressure during the 1990’s.

477 http://www.rootswithoutend.org/emporium/ceremony_lead.jpg

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478

The Vodou religion has survived a great degree of persecution, and its followers have endured numerous hardships. Today, aspects that were once considered "uncivilized" have finally become “worthy” of scientific study. The religion of Vodou needs to be "rediscovered" because the past falsehoods perpetuated by ignorance and the images of Hollywood have prevented the mention of Vodou as a vital aspect of the history of jazz in many instances. As often happens when one studies the effect of Vodou upon music in the U.S., one discovers just how exciting and fascinating the music and culture of Vodou can be.

Rara Another significant influential music to come out of Haiti in terms of rhythms is Rara (a.k.a. ra-ra or Rara), which means "to make a big racket." Its counterpart for the Haitians living in the neighboring island of the Dominican Republic is called Gaga, which means "crazy", or "senile." While any night could be a night for Rara, the peak time for this music is during lent. The boisterous Rara festivals take place during Lent, when practicing Catholics are quietly meditating on the suffering of Jesus. Vodouists and Rara members do not observe this aspect of Christianity, and so the tension between the two religious bases can bubble to the surface during Rara season.479

478 http://www.billboard.com/artist/Rara-machine/24538#/album/Rara-machine/break-the- chain/77046 479 http://Rara.wesleyan.edu/christians_jews/analysis.php Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 521

Bands of revelers, dancers, singers, percussionists, and some who play bamboo or tin trumpets march in parades, play in rallies and demonstrations. The peak of Rara is after 9 p.m., and may continue all night long. It is much like the carnivals of Rio and the Mardis Gras of New Orleans, and is a way to demonstrate Haitian identity. Songs can last for hours, and lyrics can vary from pro-government to anti- government. Some lyrics can also be blatantly obscene, while others may be deeply religious prayers to lwas or to Christ. Each Rara group is highly organized, has distinct identifying flags and outfits, and has strict rules for admittance. The competition between Rara and Gaga groups can be intense, and sometimes have been known to erupt into violence. The only perceivable difference between Rara and Gaga is that since Haitians are not always welcome in some areas of the Dominican Republic, the celebrations are less frequent and more subdued.

480 The bamboo and tin trumpets rise over the crowd as a Rara band goes down the street.

Kompa (sometimes written konpa or compa) is a Haitian musical genre as well as a dance that involves mostly medium-to-fast tempo beats with an emphasis on synthesizers. The lyrics are mostly in Haitian Creole, and are often sexually explicit. In North America, kompa festivals take place frequently in Montreal, New York, Miami, and Boston.

480 http://projectmedishare.files.wordpress.com/2008/03/img_0497.jpg

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The music of today's Haiti consists of traditional music plus many other styles from neighboring islands, (particularly the Dominican Republic), and music from U.S. has had its impact as well. Like other Caribbean countries, Haitian music has its own strong cultural identity while constant evolution and change occur.

The Dominican Republic The Dominican Republic shares the island of Hispaniola with Haiti (refer to the map on p. 507), yet its musical traditions are quite different from Haiti. In 1697, Spain gave the western end of the island to France after abandoning it, and by 1795 France owned the entire island. The Haitians came into rule and governed the island until the 1840's when Juan Pablo Duarte initiated an uprising that drove the Haitians out of the eastern part of Hispaniola. In 1844, Santo Domingo declared its independence and the Dominican Republic was formed. Hispaniola is the second- largest of the Greater Antilles islands, and lies west of Puerto Rico and east of Cuba and Jamaica (refer to the map on p. 410). A legacy of unsettled times and dictatorships lasted for much of the 20th century. The move towards representative democracy has improved vastly since the death of military dictator Rafael Leónidas Trujillo in 1961. Dominicans sometimes refer to their country as Quisqueya, a name for Hispaniola used by the native Taíno Indians. The Dominican ("do-MIN-i-kun") Republic should not be confused with Dominica ("do-min-EE-ka"), another Caribbean country.

The musical origins of the Dominican Republic include Native American, Spanish, and African influences. The influence of Afro-Cuban styles are strong also, particularly in the modern-day merengue, which is one of the most important and popular dances in the Caribbean today. One of the most famous Dominican composers was Alfredo Maximo Soler, who wrote more than 300 popular compositions during his career.

As with most Caribbean countries, the oral tradition is very important, and nearly all music is learned in this manner. As words are passed down from generation to generation, so is the instrumental music. Some of the instruments used are the cuatro (small 4-stringed guitar also popular in Puerto Rico and Venezuela), charrasca (metal scraper), tambora (double-headed drum played with a stick and muted with the other hand), and the bajo (single headed drum). The jawbone of a burro is also used for scraping sounds.

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The Cuatro481

482 The Charrasca can be made of metal or wood to get a scraping sound.

481 http://www.oleplingplong.com/img/bio_cuatro_stor.jpg 482 http://www.nuestragaita.com/alcibiadescharrasca.jpg Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 524

This tambora features different skins on each end. A male goat skin is used for one drum head, and the other comes from female goats that have given birth once. After carrying their young to term, the belly skin stretches and toughens to produce a darker and more resonant sound. The male side of the drums is played with a heavy-gauge drumstick. The tambora usses rattan wraparound bands on eiter side, fastened with leather and 27 feet of non-stretchable nylon rope, used for tuning. The wood is recycled from rum barrels – a centuries-old tradition for Caribbean drummakers. 483

The Dominican style of song is similar to that of the Spanish Copla, or four-line stanza. Lyrics are associated with religion, dance, work, or romance. Call-response is also used frequently in Dominican songs. Salve is a call and response type of singing that uses panderos, atabales and other African instruments. Salves are highly ceremonial and are used in pilgrimages and at parties dedicated to saints.

Bachata is a style of music that inhabitants of shantytowns call their own, although it was derived from bolero, a type of genre native to Cuba and is more of a slow and smooth rhythmic dance. Most of the songs are lamentations over a lost love. The bourgeoisie originally dismissed it as worthless and it was therefore given the name , meaning a rowdy lower-class fiesta (party). Moreover, the dance was forbidden until fairly recently. This genre is largely recognized by its guitar-based ensembles rather than the accordion or saxophone-dominated merengues. Bachata has always been popular, but its popularity started increasing throughout the 90's and 2000's. One of the biggest and most popular bachata songs in the new millennium was "Obsesion" by Aventura, pictured below (2002).

483 www.grandcentralmusic.com/mall/hotdrums/drums.htm Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 525

484 Aventura is one of the most unique and innovative artists on the scene today. After more than ten years of sparring in the music business, these four young, dynamic guys with a seldom-seen chemistry continue to auto-produce soulful, original music that gleams with excellence. They are the first "Bachata-boy band," the first band to fuse the essence of bachata with R&B, hip hop and other American pop styles; the first Bachata band to perform in English, Spanish and "Spanglish." Aventura is also the first bachata group to 485 feature songs that address serious life situations.

Although bachata was originally aimed toward the people of the lower class, it is enjoyed by people from all backgrounds today. Bachata can now be heard all over Latin America as well as in U.S. cities such as New York, Boston and Miami - or wherever there is a sizeable Caribbean Latino population. Bachata artists/groups include: Aventura, Monchy y Alexandra, Yoskar Sarante, El Gringo, El Chaval, Ricky Dominguez, Antony Santos, Frank Reyes, Luis Vargas, Raulin Rodriguez, Andy Andy, and Super Uba.

Dances such as the bolero, guaracha, and bolemengue are popular in the Dominican Republic, but by far the most internationally popular dance is the merengue. Influences can be traced back to the 19th century. One origin theory suggests that the name is derived from the "confection made from sugar and the whites of eggs - i.e., from the light and frothy character of the dance."486 Another story suggests that back in the days of monarchy, a king wanted to recognize a hero who was lame. The king asked everyone in his court to dance in the fashion of a lame person so the young man would not feel self-conscious!

484 http://suriyanto.net/pics/latin/aventura_we_broke_the_rules_2002_groot.jpg 485 http://www.youtube.com/TheKingsOfBachata 486 J.M. Coopersmith. Music and Musicians of the Dominican Republic. Washington D.C.: Pan American Union, 1949, p. 19. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 526

In one sense, the merengue is similar to a polka, but there are many variations as to how the merengue can be performed, as it seems to be an informal dance with few rules. Early merengue bands from the rural agricultural areas would use the accordion, tambora drum, metal scraper, and voice. The bajo drum has a distinctive rhythmic pattern that occurs on beat four of each group of four beats and goes into beat one. Most merengues are fast, and some are very fast. Current merengue bands have added electric bass and horns (C melody saxophones and occasionally brass) to the traditional instrumentation, and in some cases, synthesizers have replaced the accordion. C melody saxophones, pitched in concert key, are no longer made in the U.S., where the saxophones are pitched in either Eb or Bb. While the bass part is similar to a polka and stays on the downbeats of one and three, the other instruments of the merengue have a more complex role in general than the cúmbia. The tempos typically run and even quite fast, the percussion is busier, and the horn parts are more complex, with short, choppy parts.

Traditional, acoustic merengue is best represented by the earliest recorded musicians, like Angel Viloria and Francisco Ulloa. Merengue continued to be limited in popularity to the lower-classes, especially in the Cibao area, in the early 20th century. Artists like Juan F. García, Juan Espínola and Julio Alberto Hernandez tried to move merengue into the mainstream, but failed, largely due to the risqué lyrics. Some success occurred after the original form (then called merengue típico cibaeño, from the Cibao valley around the city of Santiago) was slowed down to accommodate American soldiers (who occupied the country from 1916-1924). Since they couldn't dance the difficult steps of the faster merengue; a mid-tempo version (pambiche) was created. Major mainstream acceptance started with the rise of Rafael Trujillo in the early 1930’s. Rafael Trujillo, who seized the presidency of the Dominican Republic in 1930, helped merengue to become a national symbol of the island up until his assassination in 1961. Being that he was of humble origins, he had been barred from elite social clubs. He therefore resented these elite sophisticates and began promoting the Cibao-style merengue as the populist symbol.

The text of merengue songs covers an array of topics, including politics, evident by the hundreds of songs that were made focusing on political aspects of Trujillo's dictatorship – praising certain guidelines and actions of his party. Trujillo even made it mandatory for urban dance bands to include merengue in their routines. Also, piano and brass instruments were added in large merengue orchestras. On the other hand, merengue that continued to use an accordion became known as perico ripiao (ripped parrot). It was because of all this that merengue became and still is the Dominican Republic’s national music and dance.

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In the 1960’s, a new group of artists (most famously Johnny Ventura) incorporated American R&B and rock and roll influences, along with Cuban . The instrumentation changed, with accordion replaced by electric guitars or synthesizers. Parts were occasionally sampled, and the saxophone's role was redefined. Some groups had a “big band” merengue sound, with the saxophone playing a more prominent role than before, including lots of difficult phrases requiring rapid tonguing – not easy to do on saxophone. In spite of the changes, merengue remained the most popular form of music in the Dominican Republic. Johnny Ventura, for example, was so adulated that he became a massively popular and influential politician on his return after a time in the United States, and was seen as a national symbol. Below is an early picture on an album where he is dubbed “the king of merengue”.

487

Two other musicians to bring the merengue to new heights of popularity were Carlos Manuel and Juan Luis Guerra. The 1980’s saw increasing Dominican emigration to Europe and the United States, especially to and Miami. Merengue came with them, bringing images of glitzy pop singers and idols. At the

487 http://www.batanga.com/es/cds/johnny-ventura-el-rey-del-merengue

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same time, Juan Luis Guerra slowed down the merengue rhythm, added more lyrical depth, and entrenched social commentary. He also incorporated bachata and Western musical influences with albums like the critically-acclaimed Bachata Rosa.

A recent photo of Juan Luis Guerra488

More modern merengue groups incorporate electric instruments and influences from salsa, rock and roll and hip hop. The mid-1990’s saw the development of Merenrap (dominated by hardcore rapping) or Merenhouse which added house and hip hop elements and became quite popular, especially New York Dominican merenrap group Proyecto Uno.

Reggaeton in the Dominican Republic While the merengue is quite popular, the reader should understand that the merengue is merely one of many Caribbean musical styles heard in the Dominican Republic. The Dominican Republic was the second country in Latin America to adopt Reggaeton after Puerto Rico (followed by Mexico). Dominican reggaeton is a mixture of American hip hop music with reggae, along with elements of Dominican bachata, merengue and the Bomba (a Puerto Rican) rhythm. Reggaeton has also sought popularity in the Dominican Republic with “The Luny Tunes” who are one of

488http://swotti.starmedia.com/tmp/swotti/cacheANVHBIBSDWLZIGD1ZXJYYQ==/imgjuan%20lui s%20guerra2.jpg

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the country’s most popular reggaeton producers in the genre. They have worked with almost every artist in the reggaeton genre, producing Daddy Yankee's smash hit "Gasolina" and many other hit songs. Reggaeton artists Nicky Jam and Tego Calderon both have Dominican roots.

Trinidad/Tobago Since the island of Tobago has the same musical tradition as Trinidad, all references to Trinidad include the tiny island of Tobago as well. "Humming-Bird Land" was the name the natives gave the larger island originally, and it was named Trinidad by the Spanish in honor of the Holy Trinity. There are 26 types of hummingbirds, 400 species of birds, and 617 species of butterflies on this island, which has seen Dutch, English, French, and Spanish occupation. Trinidad has been a British colony since 1797, and slavery was abolished in 1834.

Since the discovery of vast amounts of oil, Trinidad has become the Caribbean crossroads between the northern and southern hemispheres. Located just seven miles off of the coast of Venezuela, the population of 1.26 million is quite racially mixed - with a considerable number of people of English, French, Portuguese, Spanish, Chinese, African, and Hindu origins, not to mention the many possible combinations of these!

Calypso was developed during the nineteenth century, and flourished in Port of Spain, Trinidad's capital city. The rhythms are driven by the banjo, bongo, acoustic guitar, and rhumba box, (a thumb piano that is plucked and made out of a wooden box with metal strings).

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Rhumba Box489

The West African griot - the singer and story teller who entertained kings and recited the histories of families and great events - has had many vigorous descendants in the New World . . . Of all the griots' inheritors the most colorful and the most explicitly political is the calypsonian of Trinidad.490

Trinidad was colonized by the Spanish, received large numbers of French immigrants, and was later ruled by the British. This multi-colonial past has greatly impacted the development of calypso in Trinidad. Many early calypsos were sung in a French-Creole dialect called patois ("pat-was"). These songs, usually led by one individual called a griot, helped to unite the slaves.

Calypso rhythms can be traced back to the arrival of the first African slaves brought to work in the sugar plantations of Trinidad. Forbidden to talk to each other, and robbed of all links to family and home, the African slaves began to sing songs. They used calypso, which can be traced back to West African kaiso, a narrative song that often served as a basis for competition to see who could tell a story the best. In the early days in Trididad, calypso was used as a means of communication and to mock the slave masters.

489 http://www.mentomusic.com/images/rumbabox2.jpg 490 Samuel Charters, liner notes for "Send Your Children to the Orphan Home: Calypso Songs of Social Commentary and Love Troubles." NYC: folkways Album No. RF4, p. 1 Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 531

Calypso singing competitions, held annually at Carnival time, grew in popularity after the abolition of slavery by the British in the 1830’s. (It was the French who brought the tradition of Carnival to Trinidad.) The griot later became known as the chantuelle and today as the calypsonian.

The year 1914 was a landmark year in the history of calypso, when the first vocal calypso recording was made by Jules Sim and the Duke of Iron. The late 1920’s gave birth to the first calypso tents, where calypsonians would practice before Carnival. Today, calypso tents are showcases for the new music of Carnival season.

The calypso singers were especially known for their social commentary laced with satirical humor in an atmosphere of political openness. Texts are often complex and based on past events, or events of a very local nature. Not all calypsos are socially conscious, for calypso has always had its risqué side too. Lord Kitchener's 1953 hit "Africa My Home" spoke against the racial tensions remaining in the Caribbean:

Your father is an African Your mother may be Norwegian You pass me when you say good-night Feeling you are really white No, you can never get away from the fact If you are not white you considered black.491

Calypso singers sing in a very conversational manner, getting ahead and behind the beat constantly. Vocal intonation is much like the minor pentatonic scale used in early blues than the Western-based major or minor scales. However, the instrumentation for early calypso (the late 1920's and 1930's) is similar to the early jazz combos of New Orleans, giving calypso of this time period an early jazz flavor with an African-styled vocalist singing in the language of Trinidadian English. The tempo of calypsos are usually moderate, to allow the vocalist to get all of the words in, and the bass part is often on beats one, the "and" of beat two, and beat four, giving a relaxed, tropical feel. George Victory, a guitarist and songwriter from Trinidad, states that calypso involves "two chord changes and a hook line they can remember from here to eternity."492 Calypso styles were also popular in Jamaica, and to some extent, in Haiti. Frederick Wilmoth 'Houdini' Hendricks (1901-1973) is famous for introducing calypso music to the U.S.

By the late 1930’s, exceptional calypsonians such as Atilla the Hun, Lord Invader and the Roaring Lion were making an indelible impression on the calypso music world.

491 Timothy White. "Lord Kitchener Still Rules calypso." Billboard. 105 (1993) : 5. 492 Daisann McLane. "Lady Complainer: Road Warriors." Village Voice.34 (1989) : 76. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 532

Lord Kitchener rose to prominence in the 1940’s and dominated the calypso scene until the late 1970’s. Even after that, Lord Kitchener continued to make memorable hits until his death in 2001.

Lord Kitchener493

In 1944, the Andrews Sisters (an American singing trio) did a cover version of Lord Invader's hit “Rum and Coca Cola,” which put calypso “on the map” for many U.S. listeners.

In 1956, Harry Belafonte recorded his Calypso album containing the famous Banana Boat Song "Day-O" - probably the most internationally well-known calypso song. His Calypso album also became the first album ever to sell over one million copies.

493 http://www.tntisland.com/images/lordkitchener50.jpg

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“Day-O”, a traditional Trinidadian calypso folk song, was featured in the movie Beetlejuice. This song is about dock workers on the night shift loading the bananas on board. They want their work to be tallied up so they can get on home.

Day-o, day-ay-ay-o Daylight come and me wan' go home Day-o, day-ay-ay-o Daylight come and me wan' go home 494

One of the greatest calypso artists of all time is Mighty Sparrow, who has been dubbed "Calypso King of the World."495 In 1956, the Mighty Sparrow took the calypso world by storm with his legendary hit “Jean and Dinah”, which celebrated the departure of US troops from Trinidad, ushering in a new era of politically charged calypso. This politicized form of calypso, allying itself with the People's National Movement (PNM) party, facilitated Trinidad's independence from Britain in 1962. Socially and politically conscious calypso has had a major influence on many of Trinidad's most important social and political movements.

494 http://media-files.gather.com/images/d132/d147/d744/d224/d96/f3/full.jpg 495 Daisann McLane. "Wine and Jam." Village Voice. 37 (1992) : 67. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 534

Mighty Sparrow496

Together with Lord Kitchener, Mighty Sparrow dominated the calypso scene until the late 1970’s. The Mighty Sparrow has continued to record and to date has produced some 90 albums. He is known for having so many consecutive carnival wins, that he resigned from competition for 18 years to give newcomers a chance. The National Carnival Commission (NCC) declared Carnival 2001 as "The Sparrow Carnival" in honor of his contributions. Also, the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) has awarded the Mighty Sparrow with the Caribbean's highest award, the Order of the Caribbean, for outstanding contribution to the development of the region.

Most of the top calypsonians from the golden age have been male; The Growling Tiger, Lord Executor and Lord Pretender, just to name a few. However, the 1960’s saw the rise of Calypso Rose, the undisputed "Queen of Calypso." Over the years, Calypso Rose has written and performed songs with themes ranging from political commentaries to party songs, and has won numerous awards. Her 1996 hit “Fire in Me Wire” has become a calypso anthem.

496 http://www.kalamu.com/bol/2008/02/18/will-i-am-%E2%80%9Cyes-we-can%E2%80%9D/

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497 Calypso Rose has managed to excel in this otherwise male dominated genre.

Soca, Rapso The 1970’s saw a decline in the popularity of calypso due to outside musical influences. Jamaican reggae made its presence known as did disco and R&B from the U.S. Musical fusions were bound to occur. As a result, the 1970’s gave birth to a more up-tempo, less socially conscious version of calypso called soca. Soca, or "soul calypso", is also a Trinidad and Tobago-based form. Soca takes calypso and speeds up the tempo, has a more reggae-type of bass line, adds electronic instruments, and slightly simplifies the syncopation (due to the faster tempo). Because the tempo is faster, the lyrics are a bit simpler with fewer words overall. While calypso is the voice of social conscience, soca is party music. Soca is also characterized by a bumping-type of dancing. While mostly party music, a few songs contain political and social messages. Of these, there are fewer songs of judgmental politics and more songs about civil rights and ethnic pride.

Soca is said to have been invented in 1963 by Lord Shorty's "Clock and Dagger". Shorty added Indian instruments, including the dholak, (a double-headed drum), tabla (a pair of drums; one large, one small) and a dhantal (a steel rod struck with a metal horseshoe). Soca soon rivaled reggae as the most popular form of Caribbean music. Soca reached its modern form by the early 1970’s under the influence of American soul, disco and funk music, as Trinidadian artists began recording in New York City. By this time, most of the Indian-derived elements had been removed from the genre. Shorty's 1974 Endless Vibrations and Soul of Calypso brought

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soca to its peak of international fame. Less lyrically revolutionary than traditional calypso, soca has remained mostly focused on good times throughout its history, though artists like Gypsy (whose 1986 "The Sinking Ship" helped remove the People's National Movement from the Trinidadian government) continued calypso's socially-aware traditions.

Soca's popularity grew through the 1970’s and early 1980’s, finally becoming an international chart-topper after the 1983 hit "Hot! Hot! Hot!" by Arrow, who ironically wasn’t from Trinidad, but from Montserrat. Arrow soon proved himself to be one of the most innovative soca artists of the 1980’s, incorporating Zouk (from Martinique and Guadaloupe) and other influences into a series of best-selling singles.

Arrow sets the crowd alight with “Hot, Hot, Hot” in this 2004 concert.498

Other artists of the 1980’s put new islands on the soca map, especially Tobago (Shadow), Anguilla (Swallow) and Barbados (Square One). Other groups added influences from African spirituals (Superblue), gospel (Lord Shorty, under his new name Ras Shorty I), reggae (Byron Lee), Indian music (Mungal Patasar) and funk (Lord Nelson). The most important fusion was ragga-soca, which combined Jamaican ragga (electronic-based reggae) with soca. Soca artists Black Stalin, Colin Lucas, David Rudder, Hollis "Chalkdust" Liverpool, Charlie's Roots, and Shandileer are quite popular. Bunji Garlin, Magadan, and Machel Montano & Xtatic, and KMC were the most popular of the ragga-soca bands of the 1990’s.

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Soca remains quite popular today as a major musical force at carnivals, and has captured the interest of major record labels. It is far more than mere seasonal music for carnival. Calypso has influenced such musical forms as dance and rap with its key rhythms and vocal strains.499 Contemporary calypsonians such as David Rudder have very successfully combined calypso lyrics with dance rhythms - making the music accessible to a larger audience.

Rapso, with its calypso style lyrics and rhythms influenced by American hip-hop has also become popular. Other styles such as soca-chutney and ringbang give listeners even more musical choices. Rapso has become the more influential of these two main descendants of calypso; it arose as Black Power and Pan-Africanist thought spread in Trinidad. Lancelot Layne is said to have invented the genre with his 1971 hit "Blow Away", while Cheryl Byron brought rapso to calypso tents in 1976. The term rapso first appeared in 1980 on Busting Out, an album by Brother Resistance and his Network Riddum Band.

Brother Resistance, lead singer of the Network Riddum Band500

Rapso has currently become one of the most prevalent expressions of music in Trinidad, but is largely absorbed into calypso during Carnival celebrations and contests. The 1990’s saw a more politically and spiritually-conscious form of rapso, which has been infused with soul and reggae music, as well as native J'ouvert, an early introduction to Carnival which consists of percussionists using makeshift materials to hammer out a beat.

499 Timothy White. "Lord Kitchener Still Rules Calypso." Billboard. 105 (1993) : 5. 500 http://www.musikear.com/imageficha/brother-resistance.jpg

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Steel Drums Another very important and influential musical tradition from the small island of Trinidad is the steel drum. To this day, there is controversy concerning the steelpan's origins. As the story goes, a man named Winston “Spree” Simon, a steel band percussionist, noticed a dent in his dustbin. While trying to hammer out the dent, he realized that the pitch he produced changed with the shape and size of the dent. Simon took an old biscuit tin, and beat it with a corn cob to form a steelpan. He experimented with new dents until he was able to obtain a musical scale. This process was then applied to the huge steel oil drums left behind by American forces after World War II, for their size and shape allowed for uniformity in tuning.

The first record on a pan band in the press was in a report of the Carnival in the Trinidad Guardian dated Tuesday, February 6, 1940. The oldest steel band in the world is the Hell’s Gate Steel Orchestra of Antigua, which celebrated its 60th anniversary in 2005. Early bands were essentially rhythm bands. During the 1940’s the discarded 55-gallon steel oil drums became the preferred type of pan and, perhaps noticing that constant drumming changed the tone of the pans, techniques were developed to tune them to enable melodies to be played. Ellie Mannette is credited as the first to use the oil drum in 1946. By the late 1940’s the music had spread to neighboring islands.

The 55-Gallon Steel Drum501

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In 1951 the Trinidad All Steel Percussion Orchestra (TASPO) took the music to the Festival of Britain in the United Kingdom. In 1957, Rear Admiral Daniel V. Gallery formed what became the US Navy Steel Band, which toured the world as ambassadors for the U.S. Navy until 1999. During the 1960’s the tuner Anthony Williams developed a pan - the fourths and fifths - that has since become the standard design used today. Two Americans, George Whitmyre and Harvey J. Price, have secured a US patent for "the process of formation of a Caribbean steelpan using a hydroforming press". This patent is being challenged by the Trinidad and Tobago Legal Affairs Ministry, since many Trinbagonian drum makers have used similar methods for years.

Steel bands were originally used by poor native villagers. The people could not afford European instruments and did not read music, so steel band members originally learned their music through the oral tradition. As the steel bands proliferated, they have ultimately earned international respect, and have sponsorship of the government and of large corporations.

The carnival in Trinidad is also a spectacular pre-Lenten celebration. Preparations are made for months, and there is usually a calypso fiesta and a steel band or "pan" competition. Some bands may have a thousand or more participants. Each band develops a theme and creates ornate costumes and a full scale production occurs at the carnival.

Pans are constructed by pounding the top of the oil drum into a bowl-like shape, known as "sinking" the drum. The drum is tempered over a fire until it is "white hot" and allowed to cool. Then the notes are laid out, shaped, grooved, and tuned with a variety of hammers and other tools. The note's size corresponds to the pitch - the larger the oval, the lower the tone. The size of the instrument varies from one pan to another. It may have almost all of the "skirt" (the cylindrical part of the oil drum) cut off and around 30 soprano-range notes. It may use the entire drum with only 3 bass notes per pan, in which case one person may play 6 such pans. The length of the skirt generally corresponds to the tessitura (high or low range) of the drum. The pans may either be painted or chromed.

In the early days of steel drum production, the pitches in the pan were arranged haphazardly. Eventually, standard arrangements were accepted. The most widely used layout, (also used in Britain) is given:

Bass pans lowest - five full-sized drums with bottoms cut out, resting on padded stands. The drums are raised to improve resonance, and are arranged to be played by a single player.

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Cello pans 1/2 to 3/4 the depth of the bass pans - also on stands. Up to 3 cello pans played by one player. Often double (play the same notes as) the bass pitches or fill out chords to accompany melody.

Guitar pans mellow sound - supply harmony, shallower than the cello pans, and played in pairs.

Double Second Pans - a wider range than the guitar pans, and can fill out upper harmonies or countermelody. These pans rest on stands and are played in pairs.

Tenor or Ping Pong Pans - shallowest and highest sounding - a variety of pitches available, usually given the melody, and often more than one tenor pan per band.

A Steel Band in the 1950’s502

The world of steelpan is still thriving. Many ensembles have emerged in recent years which combine the steelpan with other styles of music and instruments not typically found in Caribbean music. As more artists begin including the instrument

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in various genres of music, it is likely that it will begin to be seen more as a versatile, general-purpose instrument than as a niche or novelty item.

The pan culture is encouraged in Trinidad and Tobago, and is included in parades on Carnival days, Emancipation day, and other celebrations. In addition, Caribbean immigrants to other countries often form community bands and youth bands, resulting in vibrant steelpan scenes in cities like New York, Toronto, Miami, and Washington, DC. Secondary schools, colleges, and universities are another setting in which young people are introduced to the steelpan. A growing number of colleges and universities now have steelpan ensembles, where music students and non-majors alike often strike their first notes on the pan. Others participate in elementary, middle, or high school pan ensembles. It seems likely that the number of pan players will continue to grow, both in Caribbean cultures and around the world.

Steel pan music is also big in the U.K. Since arriving in London, steel bands have spread all over the U.K., as far north as Newcastle. Rainbow Pans (pictured here) have been based in Newcastle for 4 years but have experience as a steel band dating back to 1990. Rainbow Pans present a blend of calypso, reggae and ska, infused with clever arrangements of popular contemporary songs and tunes.503

503 www.steelbands4u.co.uk/Newcastle Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 542

Puerto Rico For Puerto Rico’s location in the Caribbean, please refer to the map on p. 507. The history of the music on the island of Puerto Rico begins with its original inhabitants, the Taínos. While very little of their culture is left, traces of it can be found in some of the percussion instruments currently in use, particularly in the countryside. Some sporadic attempts have been made to revive this native music, but they are neither sustained nor convincing as to their accuracy.

Christopher Columbus arrived on the island in November of 1493, but the indelible mark of Spanish culture wasn't felt until Juan Ponce de León invaded the island in 1508 and established a colony near the current capital of San Juan. The colonists brought with them the musical instruments of their mother country, notably the guitar, a love of infectious rhythms and some of the scales left in the Iberian Peninsula by the Moors. Puerto Rico has been a colony of the U.S. since 1898.

The typical Puerto Rican musical instruments reflect the influence of the different ethnic and racial groups. The güiro is a scraping instrument made out of the nut of the "cucurbita lagenaria" or bitter marimbo tree. It has found its way into many forms of Latin music. Some maintain that it is native to the island, while others maintain it originated from the Arawak Indians of South America.

The güiro is one of the instruments used in traditional Puerto Rican music that is a notched hollowed-out gourd, which was adapted from a pre-Colombian instrument. The güiro is made by carving the shell of the gourd and carving parallel fluting on its surface. It is played by holding the güiro in the left hand with the thumb inserted into the back sound hole to keep the instrument in place. The right hand usually holds the scraper and plays the instrument. The scraper is more properly called a pua. Playing the güiro usually requires both long and short sounds, which are made by scraping both up and down in long or short strokes. The güiro, like the maracas, is usually played by a singer. The instrument's rasping sound adds counterpoint to folk music but is less often used in salsa bands.504

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Another Taino instrument that is still used today played in pairs are the maracas. Its name is taken from the original Taino name of Amaraca which is of Araucanian origin. A maraca is made out of the hollowed shell of the fruit of the "crescentia cujete" evergreen tree. A piece of wood pierces through the shell as a handle and dried seeds or pebbles inside rattle when the musicians shake the instrument.

This pair of maracas bears the Puerto Rican flag.505

The Spanish vihuelas, lutes, guitarrillos (very small guitars) and guitars underwent several changes on the island. This gave birth to Puerto Rico's native string instruments the cuatro (a guitar of four double strings pictured in the Dominican Republic section), tiple (a 5 string guitar), and bordonua.

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From left to right; the cuatro, tiple, and bordonua. 506

Puerto Rico also has native drums like the Panderetas, which are a type of hand drums, also known as panderos.

Panderetas resemble tambourines but without the cymbals. These are hand-held drums with stretched animal skins covering a round wooden frame. There is disagreement on whether the panderetas typically used in Puerto Rico today are adapted from instruments known in Spain from the time of the Moors known as an adufe, or from similar African instruments. They come in three different sizes and pitch and are commonly used to play

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the plena. Typically, plena groups use three panderetas, each with a different role. The seguidor plays the basic rhythm, a role like the first buleador drum in the bomba genre. The role of the second pandereta is like the bomba's middle buleador. The third pandereta, know as the requinto, or solo pandereta, acts like the subidor, or lead bomba drum. 507

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The bombas are like the Cuban Conga drums, but are shorter, wider and produce a deeper sound. Traditionally rum barrels were used, once some of their panels were removed to make them narrower so that goat skins could be stretched across the mouth. Other Puerto Rican instruments of African orgin are the Cua, an Afro- Puerto Rican percussion instrument made of bamboo played with sticks, and the merimbola, a suitcase-shaped instrument with flexible steel bars that serve as strings.

The heart of much Puerto Rican music is the idea of improvisation in both the music and the lyrics. A performance takes on an added dimension when the audience can anticipate the response of one performer to a difficult passage of music or clever lyrics created by another. This lyrical technique in Puerto Rico is called a controversia, which is often like a “cutting session” to see who can hurl the cleverest good-natured insults at another.

Jíbaro There are four major types of Puerto Rican music: jíbaro, bomba, plena, and salsa. Puerto Rican folk music is called jíbaro. Jíbaro music usually involves solo vocals with guitar and maracas and/or güiro. Lyrics are improvised and usually contain nostalgic themes about the homeland, nature, love, or to talk directly to someone in

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the audience. The vocal style is quite dramatic, much in the style of the singers of flamenco, and the language sung is Spanish.

The four major types of jíbaro music are the danza, seis, mapayé, and aguinaldo. The danza was written by composers in the European classical music tradition. Danza is a very sophisticated form of music that can be extremely varied in its expression; the Puerto Rican national anthem, "La Borinqueña", was originally a danza that was altered to fit a more anthem-like style. Danzas can be either romantic or festive. While the origins of the danza are murky, it probably arose around 1840 as a sort of reaction against the highly codified contradanza and was strongly influenced by Cuban immigrants and their habanera music. The first danzas were immature, youthful songs condemned by the authorities (sound familiar?), who occasionally tried ineffectively to ban the genre. The first danza virtuoso was Manuel Gregorio Tavarez and his disciple, Juan Morel Campos.

The seis (six) is a smooth, traditional dance music which was brought by Spanish settlers in the latter half of the 17th century from southern Spain. The word may have come from the custom of having six couples perform the dance. The seis may also have received its name from a choral group of six children who were seen twice a year for the feast of Immaculate Conception. The melodies and harmonies are simple, usually performed on the cuatro, guitar, and güiro, although other indigenous instruments are used depending on the available musicians. The 2/4 rhythm is maintained by the güiro and guitar. Seis songs are often named after the town of origin, and some are competitive. Lyrics are often in a ten-line stanza form called the décima. Seis con (with) décima is quite common in jíbaro music.

Mapayé songs are dance songs characterized by the varied harmonic structure and are usually played and sung in minor mode. Some songs can be political in nature; usually a means of protest. The aguinaldo songs are seasonal; for Christmas and other holidays. The aguinaldo are similar to Christmas carols, except that they are usually sung in a parranda, which is when people form a lively parade that moves from house to house in the neighborhood, looking for holiday food and drink. The melodies were subsequently used for the improvisational décima and seis. Some Aguinaldos are sung in churches or religious services, and others are more popular in the parrandas.

The Bomba and Plena The bomba and plena are truly distinctive African-derived musical forms in Puerto Rico. The bomba is commonly found in coastal towns where large communities of blacks reside. Bomba is a style of music and dance imported from West Africa during the time of slavery, with its modern development beginning in Loíza and Ponce. Bomba was played during the festival of St. James, since slaves were not Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 547

allowed to worship their own gods, and soon developed into countless styles based on the kind of dances intended to be used at the same time, using African names such as leró, yubá, cunyá, babú and belén.

Bomba often begins with a laina, when a female singer is answered by the chorus and musicians with a 2/4 or 6/8 rhythm before the dancing begins. Harmony is not used. Dancers interact with drums, and dance in pairs without touching each other. The singing style in the bomba is more African in nature than any other Puerto Rican style. There is a lot of vocal improvisation, and themes often center around events in the community. The bomba alternates between a solo singer and a group of singers in a call-response pattern. The group repeats a fixed response pattern while the soloist has freedom over the words and melody. The singing occurs over high and low pitched drums (subidor and buleador respectively), güiro, and sometimes cowbell.

Dancing is very important in the bomba, as dancers compete with the musicians in terms of the improvisation that takes place. The dancers challenge the drummers in a kind of competing dialog, like the controversia mentioned earlier. The drummers respond with a challenge of their own. Sometimes one group of dancers will tempt another group to respond to a set of complicated steps. As the bomba proceeds, tension rises and becomes more excited and passionate. It's not unusual for a bomba to end with all the performers thoroughly soaked with perspiration.

The instrumentation is simple: usually the main rhythm is maintained by a low- pitched drum known as the buleador, while the high-pitched drum or subidor dialogs with the dancers. More complicated counterrhythms are created with sticks beaten on any resonant surface. A third set of rhythms is maintained by a (single) maraca. Rafael Cepeda and the rest of the Cepeda family have long dominated the genre, while Paracumbé and others have achieved moderate success.

Plena is a narrative song from the coastal regions of Puerto Rico, especially in the municipality of Ponce, a large city southern Puerto Rico. Its origins have been claimed as far back as 1875 and as late as 1920. As rural farmers moved to San Juan and other cities, they brought plena with them and eventually added horns and improvised call and response vocals. Lyrics generally deal with stories or current events, though some are light-hearted or humorous. The plena began as street music and eventually moved into bars and nightclubs. It includes percussion, harmonica or accordion, guitar, and at times, bass. Vocals also alternate between soloist and chorus as in the bomba, yet the style is more in the dramatic style of the jíbaro singers. This well known couple’s dance involves one forward and one backwards step. The plena is quite popular in New York, which has a large Puerto Rican population. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 548

Manuel A. Jiménez, or El Canario, is the most highly-celebrated of the original plena performers. In the 1940’s and 1950’s, artists like Cesar Concepción and Mon Rivera made plena slicker and made some hits internationally, but the music's popularity sunk drastically by the mid-1960’s. Plena blossomed again in the 1990’s, and the revival has survived in Jamaica, Cuba, Brazil and other Latin and Caribbean countries. Another significant group that performs bomba and plena is Los Pleneros de la 21.

509 The group Los Pleneros de la 21 is based in New York.

Artists like Willie Colón united plena and bomba with salsa music to great critical acclaim and popularity, while other important bands of this revival include Plena Libre (long-time leaders of the genre) and Plenealo.

Puerto Rican Pop Music In the 1940’s and 1950’s, the city of New York established itself as a melting pot of Latinos from Puerto Rico, Cuba, Haiti, Dominican Republic, Colombia, Mexico and elsewhere in Latin America. The result was a series of big band groups becoming major stars playing rumba, mambo, Latin jazz and chachachá. The Morales Brothers, Rafael Cortijo and Tito Rodríguez are probably the best-known Puerto Rican stars of the period. Out of Cortijo's band came Rafael Ithier, who formed El

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Gran Combo in 1963 in order to create a popular dance music based on Cortijo's plena roots. The band was successful within a few years when "Akangana" became a major hit.

510 El Gran Combo performs at the Copacabana on W. 34th St. in New York City.

Several international pop-stars have come from Puerto Rico or are of Puerto Rican descent, including Danny Rivera, perhaps the most popular in Puerto Rico itself, alongside Chayanne, J. Lo, Luis Miguel (although he does not considers himself Puerto Rican), Lucecita Benitez and Ricky Martin. Boy bands like Menudo and Los Chicos also topped charts worldwide for a period, and began the careers of Martin and Chayanne respectively. Menudo has been recognized by many around the world to be history's greatest boy band; but this title is debatable nowadays, with the success generated by The Backstreet Boys and NSYNC. Menudo's phenomenal fame reached the United States, the rest of Latin America, Europe and Asia. During the group's golden era of the early 1980’s, the terms “Menudomania” and “Menuditis” were invented.

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Their first album was called Los Fantasmas. Over 30 members have come and gone during the years, since each member had to leave the group when they reached the age of 16.

Menudo became the first Latin group to record in foreign (not Spanish) languages. Albums were produced in Spanish, English, Portuguese, Italian, and even Tagalo, a language spoken in the Philippines.511

In 1984, Puerto Ricans in New York were beginning their own sound. The single that many consider the first true Latin Hip-Hop record was Lisa Lisa and Cult Jam's "I Wonder If I Take You Home." The song was originally signed to Personal Records in New York and not released in the U.S. It was licensed to CBS Records in England and became a big club record on import. The response the record received from the Latin Hip-Hop clubs led Columbia Records to pick up the single for U S release where it became an anthem for teen-age girls. The song reached #34 on the Pop charts in August of 1985 and Lisa Lisa became a role model for young Hispanics all over her hometown of New York.

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Chilean nueva canción (new song) was popularized in the end of the decade, producing stars like El Jíbaro and Antonio "El Topo" Caban Vale, both of whom were connected to the Puerto Rican independence movement. Hip hop stars like Vico C made Puerto Rico a center of Latin rap in the 1980’s, and saw Dominican merengue spread across the island. Many of the biggest stars of the genre in the 1990’s were Puerto Rican, including Elvis Crespo, Grupo Manía and Olga Tañon. Bomba influences among Puerto Rican merengue stars led to the invention of merengue-bomba, which then incorporated elements of electronic house music.

Reggaeton in Puerto Rico Reggaeton is a type of Latin rap music that is very popular among the Latino youth of Puerto Rico. It started in Panama with musicians rapping in Spanish to a reggae beat, but it originated in Puerto Rico with its influence of hip hop music and reggae. With reggaeton, one can hear elements of reggae mixed with plena, bomba, salsa, merengue, and bachata. Vico C became one of the first reggaeton artists of Puerto Rico and also recorded the first Spanish rap record. The popularity of reggaeton has hit all of Latin America with other popular reggaeton artists such Tego Calderon, Daddy Yankee (one of the fastest reggaeton rappers today), Don Omar, Ivy Queen (the first female and Queen of reggaeton), Wisin Y Yandel, Nicky Jam, Trebol Clan, Don Chezina, Baby Rasta y Gringo and Zion Y Lennox. Even though

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Puerto Rico claims to be the birthplace of Reggaeton, it has become very popular in countries all across Latin America such as the Dominican Republic, Colombia, Mexico, Chile, Cuba and all of Central America and South America. Reggaeton is also popular in cities in Miami, New York, Los Angeles and wherever there is a major Latino population or big club scene. There are typically satellite radio/internet stations that play exclusively Reggaeton. Reggaeton has also been brought to the mainstream in the U.S., with the hit "Oye Mi Canto" by rapper N.O.R.E. with Nina Sky and Daddy Yankee, Big Nato and Gem Star. The video has been shown on MTV and BET.

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Now that we’ve covered the first three styles of Puerto Rican music (jíbaro, bomba, and plena) only salsa remains. Since salsa has origins as a Puerto Rican and Cuban genre, we will discuss it as we explore Cuban music.

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Cuba The Caribbean island of Cuba has been influential in the development of multiple musical styles in the 19th and 20th centuries. In Cuba, there are a number of different religious groups which bring about different styles of African-influenced music, due to the heavy slave trade that once existed in Cuba. The most influential African religions existing in Cuba are the Lucumí, the Arara, the Abakwa and the Kimbisa.

The Lucumí group has maintained the religious beliefs of the Yoruba people from West Africa between the Niger River and the Nigeria-Togoland border. The Lucumí worship Orisha like the lwas of Vodou, and usually much of their music involves praise of these lwas. Along with African-styled vocals in the Yoruba language, the music uses calabash rattles (gourds), bells, and double-headed hourglass-shaped batá drums. Drums in the societies are sacred, and each has a corresponding Orisha.

Batá drums514

The Abakwa (or Carabali) group refers to the people from the Calabar region of West Africa, originally from the Niger region. The Abakwa is a secret society of men who mimic animals in their dances. In the Carabali group there are a number of white participants as well as black. Drums, bells, rattles, and friction drums are used to go with the vocals. The Arara is strongest in eastern Cuba, and is a survival

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of the Dahomean religious practices and traditions. Like the Lucumí, the Arara have their pantheon of orishas, many of which are popular in Haiti. The Kimbisa or Mayombe religion is only one of the many Congolese groups known in Cuba, and in addition to the percussion battery typical of religious groups, hand and wrist rattles will supplement dancing.

The roots of most Cuban musical forms lie in the cabildos, a form of social club among African slaves brought to the island. Cabildos preserved African cultural traditions, even after the Emancipation in 1886 forced them to unite with the Roman Catholic Church. At the same time, Santería spread throughout Cuba, Haiti and other nearby islands. Arising out of the older Lucumí religion mentioned above, the newer religion called Santería fused traditional Yoruba elements with Roman Catholic beliefs. The West African pantheon of deities are retained and identified with Catholic saints much in the same manner as Vodou. Each orisha, or deity, is associated with colors, emotions, Roman Catholic saints and drum patterns called toques.

By the 20th century, elements of Santería music had appeared in popular and folk forms. Music of Santería can be festive as in bembé, which contains much improvisation, or it can be serious. When the three batá drums are used, each pattern is strictly related to an Orisha, and must be adhered to. Parts of the patterns are related to the talking drum tradition that imitates the Yoruba praise poems.515 Santería influenced Cuba's music, as percussion is an inherent part of the religion. The dancing that goes with Santería has a subdued and stately character. Today in Cuba and in the U.S., the drumming and dancing of the Yoruba has been quite significant.

Since the mid-twentieth century, Santería has flourished in Latino communities in the U.S., especially in New York City, Los Angeles, and the Miami area, each of which hosts tens of thousands of adherents. Many are of Puerto Rican or Latino heritage other than Cuban, and non-Latinos as well. In 1993, the U.S. Supreme Court legalized animal sacrifices practiced by a Santería temple in Florida, and the religion, (and therefore, the music) is now in a position to emerge from underground.516

Cuban music has its principal roots in Spain and West Africa, but over time has been influenced by diverse genres from different countries. Most important among these are France, the United States, and Jamaica. Reciprocally, Cuban music has been immensely influential in other countries, contributing not only to the

515 Peter Manuel, with Kenneth Bilby and Michael Largey. Caribbean Currents: Caribbean Music from Rumba to Reggae. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1995, p. 21. 516 Manuel, p. 22. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 555

development of jazz and salsa, but also to Argentinean tango, Ghanaian high-life, West African Afrobeat, and Spanish "nuevo flamenco".

The natives of Cuba were the Taíno, Arawak and Ciboney people, known for a style of music called areito. Large numbers of African slaves and European immigrants brought their own forms of music to the island. and folk music included , fandango, zampado, retambico and canción. Later, northern European forms like waltz, minuet, gavotte and mazurka appeared among urban whites. Fernando Ortíz, a Cuban folklorist, described Cuba's musical innovations as arising from the interplay between African slaves settled on large sugar plantations and Spanish or Canary Islanders who grew tobacco on small farms. The African slaves and their descendants reconstructed large numbers of percussive instruments and corresponding rhythms, the most important instruments being the clave, the and batá drums. Chinese immigrants have contributed the cornetín chino ("Chinese cornet"), a Chinese wind instrument still played in the comparsas, (carnival groups) of Santiago de Cuba.

Hernando de la Parra's archives give many of our earliest available information on Cuban music. He reported instruments including the clarinet, violin and vihuela. There were few professional musicians at the time, and fewer still of their songs survive. Cuba, like other Caribbean countries has a variety of native instruments; one of which is the claves; a pair of thick cylindrical wooden sticks struck one against the other, with the cupped palm of the hand serving as the resonator.

Claves517

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The Cuban maracas is a pair of gourds filled with dry seeds.518

Cubans also use the güiro, the calabash gourd that is serrated and grated with a stick to give a scraping sound (pictured on p. 534). The conga drums are played in threes or two at a time, and are fairly large drums made out of a hollowed out tree trunk. They give out a very resonant sound, particularly when raised off of the ground.

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The conga, a narrow and tall single-headed Cuban drum, was derived from the Congolese Makuta or Sikulu drums which were commonly played in Mbanza Ngungu, Congo. Congas were originally used both in Afro-Caribbean religious celebrations and as the main instrument in creating Rumba music. Since then, it has been widely used in creating Latin music, especially Salsa. The conga is also obviously the main instrument in creating the infamous conga line. The conga line is actually a carnival march (although most people only see it done in a wedding).

It was first developed in Cuba and became popular in the United States in the 1930’s and once more in the 1950’s. The dance is pretty simple, and most of you have probably seen it done in movies and on TV. All the dancers will form a single procession-like line. They all do the same move over and over again: three shuffle steps coinciding with the conga beat followed by a kick done slightly ahead of the fourth drum beat – all the time moving forward following the line’s leader. Conga drums and the conga line are central parts of the original carnival procession in Santiago de Cuba. Now it is one of the most anticipated events of the Carnival de Cuba.519

519 http://www.travelguidelondon.co.uk/places-and-tourist-sites/the-4th-carnival-de-cuba.html

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520 Bongo drums are small double drums, and are placed on the knees and played with the hands and fingers. The jawbone of a mule is also scraped, and tambourines and bells compliment the impressive Cuban battery of percussion.

By far the most famous and influential Afro-Cuban secular music and dance genre is rumba, where one or two dancers are accompanied by an ensemble consisting of three congas, two pairs of tapped sticks, and a lead singer and chorus. Rumba in its old form sounds very African, and by the late 1800's it was well established in the black urban areas. One of the features of the dance in its twentieth century version is that it constantly features three against two - duple vs. triple, in each set of four beats.521

In the late 19th century, the habanera developed out of the contradanza which had arrived from Haiti after the Haitian revolution. The main innovation from the contradanza was rhythmic, as the habanera incorporated Spanish and African influences into its repertoire. In the 1930’s, the habanera group Arcaño y sus Maravillas incorporated influences from the conga rhythms and added a montuno (a middle section featuring call/response and improvisation), paving the way for the mixing of Latin musical forms, including guaracha (up-tempo songs with satirical lyrics) played by a orchestra (small band). Guaracha (sometimes simply called charanga) also drew from Haitian musical forms, and has been extremely popular.

520 http://www.mcphee.com/pixlarge/M6056.jpg 521 Manuel, p. 24. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 559

Son music came to Havana in 1920 due to the efforts of legendary groups like Trío Matamoros. Son was urbanized, with trumpets and other new instruments, leading to its tremendous influence on later forms of Cuban music. In Havana, influences such as American popular music and jazz via the radio were adopted. The son trios gave way to the septets, including guitar or tres (3-stringed guitar), marímbulas (plucked box instrument) or , bongos, claves and maracas. The trumpet was introduced in 1926. Lead singers improvised lyrics and embellished melody lines while the claves laid down the basic son clave beat. As time passed, musicians began "whitening up" son for the growing tourist traffic in the Havana nightclubs who did not understand the complex African rhythms.

In the 1930’s, the Lecuona Cuban Boys and Desi Arnaz popularized the conga in the U.S. and Don Aspiazu did the same with , which added an open, repeated section for improvised solos in one or more parts of the tune.

522 Desi Arnaz pictured with his wife Lucille Ball) did much to popularize Cuban music in the U.S. through his orchestra and the famous I Love Lucy television show.

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Arsenio Rodriguez developed the conjunto band and rumba's popularity grew. Conjunto son, mambo, chachachá, rumba and conga not only became popular in the U.S. but were the most important influences on the invention of salsa.

Another important development in the 1940's was the invention of the mambo, a fusion of Afro-Cuban rhythms with the big band format adopted from swing jazz. The mambo first entered the United States in the early 1940’s. The first mambo, appropriately titled Mambo by Orestes "Cachao" Lopez, was written in 1938. Five years later, Perez Prado introduced the dance to the audience at La Tropicana, a nightclub in Havana. Mambo was distinguished from its immediate predecessor, danzon, by elements of son montuno and jazz. By 1947, mambo was wildly popular in the U.S., but the craze lasted only a few years. Like big band jazz, sections of instruments began to play Cuban rhythms. One of the simpler dances to come out of Cuba, the chachachá, came out in the 1950's, and developed a "one-two- chachachá” or “one-two-three-cha-cha” choreography contrary to its original “one- two-three-chachachá” intention. As it became a dance craze in the 1950's, its accompanying commercialization and Arthur Murray-style dilution guaranteed its decline.

Other influential musicians prior to the Cuban revolution were Ernesto Lecuona, Chano Pozo, Bola de Nieve (who lived in Mexico), and Mario Bauzá, who, along with such "Nuyoricans" Ray Barreto and Tito Puente made innovation in mambo which gradually would produce Latin jazz and later salsa. A large number of musicians left Cuba between 1966 and 1968 after the Cuban government nationalized the remaining nightclubs and the recording industry. Among these was Celia Cruz, a guaracha singer, who gave strong impulses to the development of salsa. In later years Cubans were very active in Latin jazz and early salsa, such as percussionist Patato Valdés of the Cuban-oriented "Tipíca '73", linked to the Fania All-Stars. Several former members of the group Irakere have also become highly successful in the USA, among them Paquito d'Rivera and Arturo Sandoval. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 561

Celia Cruz523

A charanga group called Orquesta America, led by violinist Enrique Jorrín helped to invent chachachá, which became an international fad in the 1950’s. Chachachá was popularized by bands led by Tito Puente, Perez Prado and other superstars. Many of these same performers also updated mambo for modern audiences.

Modern Cuban music is known for its relentless mixing of genres. For example, the 1970’s saw the group Irakere use batá in a big band setting; this became known as son-batá or batá-rock. Later artists created the mozambique, which mixed conga and mambo, and batá-rumba, which mixed rumba and batá drum music. Mixtures including elements of hip hop, jazz and rock and roll are also common, like in Habana Abierta's rockoson.

Castro and Cuban Exiles The arrival to power of Fidel Castro in 1959 signified on one side a mass exile to Puerto Rico, Florida and New York, and on the other side, the protection of artists by the Communist state, reflected in state-owned record labels like EGREM. In Cuba, the movement (including Pablo Milanés and Silvio Rodríguez)

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reflected the New Leftist ideals young musicians learned in music school. It arose from traveling trovadores (itinerant musicians) in the early 20th century, including popular musicians like Sindo Garay (best-known for "La Bayamesa"), Nico Saquito, Carlos Puebla and Joseíto Fernández (best-known for "Guantanamera"). Nueva Trova was always intimately connected with Castro's revolution, but its lyrics frequently expressed personal rather than social issues, focusing on intense emotional issues.

The state-run cabaret Tropicana was a popular attraction for foreign tourists, though more well-informed tourists sought out local Casas de la Trova. Musicians were full-time and paid by the state after graduating from a conservatory, but as much as 90% of their income was taken by the Ministry of Culture.

Castro's government eventually forced even early supporters like Arturo Sandoval and Paquito D'Rivera into exile. The fall of the Soviet Union in the 1990’s eventually changed the situation quite a bit, and musicians were then allowed to tour abroad and earn a living outside the state-run system. Famous artists from the Cuban exile are Celia Cruz, La Lupe, Willy Chirino and Gloria Estefan. Many of these musicians, especially Cruz, became closely associated with the anti-Castro movement.

Nueva Trova began to evolve after the fall of the Soviet Union, adapting to the new times. Examples of a new, non-political line in the Nueva Trova movement could be Liuba María Hevia, whose lyrics are focused on other subjects like love and solitude, sharing with the rest a highly poetical style. On the other side of the spectrum, Carlos Varela is famous in Cuba for his open criticism of some aspects of Castro's revolution, while at the same time being included in the Nueva Trova genre. The term Novísima Trova (literally 'newest song') is often used to describe a new generation of songwriters whose main references are Silvio Rodriguez and Pablo Milanés.

Son and Nueva Trova remain the most popular forms of modern Cuban music, and virtually all Cuban artists play music derived from one of these two genres. Son is best represented by long-standing groups like Septeto Nacional, which was re- established in 1985, Orquesta Aragón, Orquesta Ritmo Oriental and Orquesta Original de Manzanillo. Septeto Nacional, alongside groups like Sierra Mestra, have sparked a revival in traditional son. Meanwhile, Irakere fused traditional Cuban music with jazz, and groups like NG La Banda, Orishas and Son 14 continued to add new elements to son, especially hip hop and funk, to form timba music; this process was aided by the acquisition of imported electronic equipment.

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There are still many practitioners of traditional son montuno, such as Eliades Ochoa, who have recorded and toured as a result of the upturn in interest in son montuno since the mid 1990’s. In the 1990’s, increased interest in world music brought traditional Cuban music styles like son montuno, again into the limelight. This development went hand-in-hand with the post-Soviet Union 563acter especial in Cuba, during which the economy began opening up to tourism. Orquesta Aragon, Charanga Habanera and Candido Fabré y su Banda have been long-time players in the charanga scene, and helped form the popular timba scene of the late 1990’s.

Despite political differences between governmental leaders and the near total lack of communication and travel in the past, it is amazing how much Cuban music has influenced music in the US. Most obviously, the US has adopted the Cuban model of rhythms and percussion battery just as readily as the previously-mentioned Brazilian 563acteria.

Timba Since its appearance in the early 1990’s, timba has become the most popular dance music in Cuba, rivaled only lately by Reggaeton, the Cuban version of Jamaican ragga and dancehall music. Though related to salsa, timba has its own characteristics and history, and is intimately tied to the life and culture of Cuba, especially Havana.

Evolving out of salsa from Cuba, timba drew on songo rhythms (folkloric rhythms of the rumba modernized into dance music in the 1970’s) and was invented by bands like Los Van Van and NG La Banda.

524 NG La Banda Performs

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By the 1990’s, this form of Cuban-born salsa was known as timba and became popular across the world. Another form of Cuban salsa is songo-salsa, with extremely fast rapping.

Buena Vista Social Club The watershed event was the release of Buena Vista Social Club (1997), a recording of veteran Cuban musicians organized by the American musician and producer, Ry Cooder. The Buena Vista Social Club became an immense worldwide hit, selling millions of copies, and made stars of octogenarian Cuban musicians such as Ibrahim Ferrer, Joseíto Fernández, and Compay Segundo, whose careers had stagnated in the 1950’s.

Buena Vista Social Club525

Buena Vista resulted in several follow-up recordings and spawned a film of the same name, as well as tremendous interest in other Cuban groups. In subsequent years, dozens of singers and conjuntos made recordings for foreign labels and toured internationally. The interest of world audiences in exile and pre-revolutionary musicians has stirred some resentment among younger musicians that feel that their work and evolution of forty years is being ignored.

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Defining Salsa (Cuba, Puerto Rico, and New York) Salsa, mentioned in the section on Puerto Rico, is very popular in Puerto Rico and Cuba, but actually developed among Cubans and Puerto Ricans living in New York City. Salsa, which literally means "spicy sauce," and is used to describe the feeling performers put into their music. In the 1970’s, Puerto Rican and Cuban immigrants in New York City created this salsa music by adding rock elements to native forms like plena. The music is of Afro-Caribbean, (especially Cuban) origin and the term was probably coined first by Ricardo (Richie) Ray and Bobby Cruz.

Salsa music is a diverse and predominantly Caribbean and Latin genre that is popular across Latin America and among Latinos abroad. The style is played prominently at clubs and incorporates multiple styles and variations. Salsa can be a little confusing because the term can be used to describe most any form of popular Puerto Rican or Cuban derived genres (like chachachá, mambo, son). Most specifically, however, salsa refers to a particular style developed by the mid-1970’s groups of New York City-area Cuban and Puerto Rican immigrants to the United States, and stylistic descendants like 1980’s salsa romantica. Some people have claimed that salsa's style is primarily Cuban, though it is a hybrid of various Latin styles mixed with pop, jazz, rock and R&B.

Author Ed Morales has said the obvious, most common perception of salsa is an "extravagant, clave-driven, Afro-Cuban-derived song anchored by piano, horns, and rhythm section and sung by a velvety voiced crooner in a sharkskin suit". He also defines it as "nothing more than a new spin on the traditional rhythms of Cuban music" and "at once (both) a modern marketing concept and the cultural voice of a new generation", representative of a "crystallization of a Latino identity in New York in the early 1960’s.” In addition, Morales cites singer Rubén Blades as claiming that salsa is merely "a concept", as opposed to a definite style or rhythm. Some musicians are doubtful that the term salsa has any useful meaning at all, with the bandleader Machito claiming that salsa was more or less what he had been playing for forty years before the style was ‘invented’, while Tito Puente once responded to a question about salsa by saying "I'm a musician, not a cook", referring to salsa's original use to mean “sauce”, and likely because he thought of his music as Latin Jazz.

At its root, however, salsa is a mixture of Spanish and African music, filtered through the music histories of Cuba and Puerto Rico, and adapted by Latin jazz and Latin popular musicians for Latino populations with diverse musical tastes. The basic structure of a salsa song is based on the Cuban son, beginning with a simple melody, followed by a coro section in which the performers improvise. Salsa can be hard to follow for the novice listener not used to such rhythmic complexity!

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Salsa Rhythm and General Instrumentation Salsa music always has a 4/4 meter, i.e., 4 beats per bar. The music is phrased in groups of two bars (i.e. 8 beats) by recurring rhythmic patterns, and the beginning of phrases in the song text and instruments. Typically, the rhythmic patterns played on the percussion instruments are rather complicated, often with several different patterns played simultaneously. Salsa music often has a fairly fast tempo around 180 beats per minute, although that can vary considerably. A rhythmic element that forms the basics in salsa is the clave rhythm, generally played on claves. The most common clave rhythm in salsa is the so called 2-3 son clave, where the strikes are over a two bar phrase – on beats 2, 3, 5, the “and” of 6, and 8:

1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8. (count) * * * * * (* = clave strikes)

The clave is not always played out directly but forms the basis that most other percussion instruments use as a common rhythmic ground for their own phrases.

As to instrumentation, salsa music needs primarily a large battery of percussion instruments, like güiros, maracas, bongos, timbales, conga drums, claves and even a cowbell for the jíbaro sound. Apart from percussion, a variety of melodic instruments are commonly used as accompaniment, such as trumpets, trombones, the piano, upright bass, and sometimes guitar. Of course, vocals are included in most salsa songs.

Origin and Development of Salsa Salsa's roots can be traced back to the African ancestors that were brought to the Caribbean by the Spanish as slaves. In Africa, it is very common to find people playing music with instruments like the conga and la pandereta, instruments commonly used in salsa. Salsa's most direct antecedent is Cuban son, which itself is a combination of African and European influences. Son bands were very popular in Cuba beginning in the 1930’s, largely quintets and sextets. By the 1930's, the popularity of son and mambo had spread to Puerto Rico where musicians incorporated the style with their own. As Cuban and Puerto Rican musicians immigrated to the US, especially New York, they took that style with them, forming Cuban/Puerto Rican son conjuntos.

In the late 1930's, Arsenio Rodríguez (one of Cuba's greatest musicians and composers) began reconnecting son with its African roots. Through his many innovations in style and instrumentation, Rodríguez expanded the son sound to emphasize or reincorporate many of the African elements which many of the earlier Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 567

son conjuntos had either omitted or simplified. He synthesized and maintained the integrity of African and Spanish elements. Some of his innovations were:

Adapting the (rhythms) to the son style Adding a cowbell and conga to the rhythm section Expanding the role of the tres as a solo instrument Introducing a montuno section for melodic solos

The Arsenio Rodriguez Orchestra in the 1950’s526

His style became known as son montuno and formed the basis of the mambo craze in the 1940's, influencing Latin popular music in New York for years to follow. Most music critics claim that despite these musical roots, what we now recognize as salsa today originated in New York City nightclubs in the years following World War II, an evolution of the era's big band tradition. The first great salsa musician was Tito Puente, who, after a stint with the U.S. Navy, studied percussion at New York's Juilliard School of Music. He went on to organize his own band, Puente's Latin Jazz Ensemble, which has been heard by audiences around the world. It represents the sounds of big band jazz meeting African-Caribbean rhythms, but calso embraces characteristics of the rumba, mambo, cha-cha-cha, and merengue.

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Another important antecedent of salsa is the mambo. The structure of mambo, which is a fusion of big band jazz and Afro-Cuban rhythmic organization, has become the basic format for many New York salsa bands. An opening melody is followed by a coro (backing improvisations) sung by the sonero (soloist), followed by a mambo section, which features the trumpet and reed sections calling and responding to each other. By including bongos and congas from the conjuntos and timbales from charanga orchestras which played danzon, salsa shows the evolution of the Afro-Cuban rhythm section. Charangas also became part of the New York sound, incorporating trumpets from conjuntos and violins from charangas.

By the end of the 1940’s, these bands grew much larger, becoming mambo and charanga orchestras led by bandleaders Arsenio Rodriguez and Felix Chappotin. New York City, at the center for mambo in the United States, especially the (Paladium Dancehall) and in Mexico City, where a burgeoning film industry attracted Latin musicians, Cuban-style big bands were formed by Cubans and Puerto Ricans like Machito, Perez Prado, Tito Puente and Tito Rodriguez.

While salsa has many roots and its primary exponents are Puerto Rican, the Cuban son is clearly the primary foundation of salsa. Certain Cuban conjuntos, such as Arsenio Rodriguez and Chapottin, provided much of the inspiration for the sound of some the New York bands in the mid 1960's, including Orchesta Harlow and Johnny Pacheco.

The jazz and rhythm-and-blues genres contributed the trap drum, featured in the mid-1960's bugalu style (a fusion of R&B, soul, mambo, and son montuno). Some songs show a direct connection to son montuno. Pete Rodriquez' mid-60’s release of Micaela is a re-work of the song Micaela me boto recorded by Cuba's Chapottin and Miguel Cuni. By the late 1960’s, bugalu evolved into more of a Latin-soul sound. Thus, the interaction between Latin music and R&B went both ways, with Latin percussion being assimilated into R&B while R&B assisted the evolution of Latin music.

Another major component of salsa is the ritual music associated with the practice of Santería, including their use of batá drums. These are heard in Orquesta Harlow's "Silencio", on their "Salsa" album. Yoruba drums, melodies, and rhythms were also included into salsa, as in the music of Irakere and Los Papines.

Finally, many stylistic features came from the Puerto Rican bomba and plena musical genres. Cesar Concepción orchestrated plena songs for many big bands in the 1940’s, while Rafael Cortijo and Ismael Rivera reintroduced and popularized bomba and in the 1950's. Recent albums also show the use of the plena rhythm, such as those of Willie Colon. Rafael Cortijo's "Maquina de Tiempo" contains musical Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 569

styles from plenas, bomba, Puerto Rican aquinaldos (Christmas folk music) and jazz. Thus, new styles keep evolving from a constant process of fusion with cycles of revival and incorporation of folk traditions into the mainstream of popular Latin dance music.

Mambo was very jazz-influenced, and it was the mambo big bands that kept alive the large jazz band tradition while the mainstream current of jazz was moving on to the smaller bands of the bebop era. Throughout the 1950’s, Latin dance music, such as mambo, rumba and chachachá became a mainstream popular music in the United States and Europe. The 1950’s also saw a decline in popular for mambo big bands, followed by the Cuban Revolution of 1959, which greatly inhibited contact between New York and Cuba. The result was a scene more dominated by Puerto Ricans than Cubans.

The New York Latin music of the early 1960’s was led by the bands of musicians such as Ray Barretto and Eddie Palmieri, influenced by imported Cuban fads such as and charanga. After the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, however, Cuban- American contact declined even more. A hybrid Nuyorican identity developed, primarily Puerto Rican but influenced by many Latin cultures as well as the close contact with African Americans. By this time, Latin pop was no longer a major force in American music, having lost ground to doo wop, R&B and rock and roll; there were a few youth fads for Latin dances, such as the soul and mambo fusion boogaloo, but Latin music ceased to be such a major part of American popular music.

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Conguero Ray Barretto527

Pianist Eddie Palmieri528

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Salsa appears to have arisen in El Barrio of New York City, where immigrants from the island settled. In the late 1960's, Cubans and Puerto Ricans invented the genre by combining rock music with Puerto Rican plena, Cuban son montuno with chachachá, mambo, rumba, cúmbia and Latin jazz. The music was highly rhythmic and eminently danceable. Puerto Ricans in this first phase of salsa included Johnny Pacheco, Ricardo (Richie Ray), Bobby Cruz, Papo Lucca, Tommy Olivencia, Héctor Lavoe, Bobby Valentin, Luis "Perico" Ortiz and Tito Curet Alonso. The 1980’s saw the rise of the salsa romantica stars like Frankie Ruiz, while Eddie Santiago softened salsa's beats and made it smooth and romantic.

Apart from the discussion of its roots, an important element in the initial excitement and subsequent spread of salsa must be the role of the Fania record company, and the huge success of the salsa band it formed and sponsored, the Fania All Stars. The Manhattan-based recording company, Fania Records, introduced many of the first-generation salsa singers and musicians to the world. Founded by Dominican flautist and band-leader Johnny Pacheco and impresario Jerry Masucci, Fania's illustrious career began with Willie Colón and Héctor Lavoe's El Malo in 1967. This was followed by a series of updated son montuno and plena tunes that evolved into salsa by 1973. The All Stars included many of the founding figures of salsa: Larry Harlow, Johnny Pacheco, Ray Barretto, Roberto Roena, Willie Colón, Pete "El Conde" Rodríguez, Ismael Miranda and Héctor LaVoe. It can be said that the All Stars were a veritable foundry of salsa pioneers with a disproportionate influence over the salsa music that the public heard, and its spread world-wide.

From New York, salsa quickly expanded to Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, Colombia, Mexico, Venezuela, and other Latin countries. Musicians and singers such as Tito Puente and Celia Cruz became household names, not only in North American Latino homes but all over the Caribbean. Later, groups like El Gran Combo and The Apollo All Stars with Roberto Roena, followed suit.

The 1970’s saw a number of musical innovations among salsa musicians. The Puerto Rican cuatro guitar was introduced by Yomo Toro and the electric piano by Larry Harlow, while vocalists like Cheo Feliciano, Soledad Bravo, and Celia Cruz adapted Brazilian songs to the genre. Ray Barretto, Tipica 73, Conjunto Clasico, Rubén Blades and Eddie Palmieri were other important artists of the era, while Peregoyo y su Combo Vacano brought Colombian influences to salsa and brought the music to their homeland. By the 1980’s, Fania Records' long-time leadership of salsa was weakened by the arrival of TH-Rodven and RMM.

The 1980’s was a time of diversification, as popular salsa evolved into sweet and smooth salsa romantica, with lyrics dwelling on love and romance, and its more Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 572

explicit cousin, salsa erotica. José Alberto's 1984 Noches Calientes is considered the beginning of this era, which was soon dominated by Puerto Rican stars. By the late 1980’s, salsa had influenced Latin rap and found artists like Sergio George returning the music to its mambo roots and adding a prominent trombone section.

Salsa during the 1980’s also expanded to Mexico, Argentina, Peru, Europe and Japan, where (Japan) it was popularized by the famous Orquesta Del Sol. Orquesta del Sol, (Orchestra of the Sun), became famous in many Latin American countries, too. Colombia continued its salsa innovations through the 1980’s, and artists like Fruko, Los Nemus del Pacifico and Latin Brothers added cúmbia influences, while the 1990’s saw Carlos Vives mix vallenato into Colombian salsa. Joe Arroyo (formerly of Fruko) and Sonora Carruseles became major attractions in Colombia during the 1990’s, and the city of Cali styled itself "salsa capital of the world".

Cuban-born Roberto Torres invented charanga-vallenata in the 1980’s, making Miami a salsa center. This status helped launch the career of Gloria Estefan, a Cuban who was a mainstream American star, and others who helped invent the Miami Sound, a mixture of rock and pop. Venezuelan salsa has also become popular, especially Oscar D'Leon, while others, like Nelson Pueblo, added native llanera music influences. Cano Estremera became a popular Salsa singer during the late 1980’s.

Salsa has registered a steady growth and now dominates the airwaves in many countries in Latin America. In addition, several Latino artists, notably Marc Anthony, and most famously, Gloria Estefan, have had success as crossovers, penetrating the Anglo-American pop market with Latin-tinged hits, usually sung in English.

The most recent innovations in the genre include hybrids like mereng-house and salsa-merengue, alongside salsa gorda. Since the mid-1990’s, African artists have also been very active through the super-group Africando, where African and New York musicians mix with leading African singers such as Bambino Diabate, Ricardo Lemvo, Ismael Lo and Salif Keita. Salsa is only one of many Latin genres to have traveled back and influenced West African music.

New York remained salsa's capital for years, but San Juan is also a contender. In Puerto Rico, the debate between the rockeros (who prefer rock) and the salseros has become part of a class antagonism between the growing middle class on the island, who prefer rock music from the mainland or the "Spanish rock", and the poor who look upon salsa as their personal heritage. There is no question; however, that the Cuban rhythms in salsa music and in Latin-influenced jazz music have been the driving force in the success of Cuban music worldwide. Salsa music is a Cuban and Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 573

Puerto Rican music that formed in New York, and has since turned around and returned with newfound popularity in the home countries.

Latin Jazz Many jazz artists began interacting with Cuban music as far back as the early 1900's, such as in Juan Tizol's composition "Caravan" for Duke Ellington, and Dizzy Gillespie's "Night in Tunisia". These two songs mixed Afro-Cuban elements with Middle Eastern song titles. The inclusion of Afro-Cuban percussion instruments into bebop jazz included those of Jerry Gonzalez' Fort Apache Band, where Bud Powell's compositions such as "Parisian Thoroughfare" mixed with a strong rumba- based rhythm section.

When jazz music is combined with Brazilian, Cuban, Puerto Rican, or other Caribbean music, the term Latin jazz is used. The line between Latin jazz and salsa has not been very clear in the past, and is still vague today, because many musicians have been classified into both fields, i.e., Tito Puente and Eddie Palmieri. Latin jazz tends to be primarily instrumental, with emphasis on improvisation. Vocals may be present, but are often interspersed with improvised instrumental solos.

With salsa music, the emphasis is on the vocalist and his or her lyrics, with some improvisation occurring with the lead vocalist or percussion. Traditionally in salsa bands, horns and other instruments improvise less, but play memorized parts via the oral tradition. Nevertheless, to the uninitiated listener, salsa and Latin jazz will sound very much the same. Often, jazz standards are “Latinized” into a salsa or even a rumba beat for the faster tunes, a chachachá or mambo for medium or medium-fast tunes, and a bolero for the slower tunes. While several of the artists have been mentioned earlier, let’s review a few of the most famous and influential Latin Jazz Artists whose bands feature improvisation:

529 Machito Frank "Machito" Grillo was a singer and maracas player from Cuba who moved to New York after traveling there while on tour with a Cuban ensemble. Soon he began leading his own band, the Afro-Cubans, who performed Cuban songs that were arranged by American jazz composers. The Afro-Cubans became one of the foremost Latin jazz ensembles in history, and featured the top jazz artists of

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all time, including Dexter Gordon and Cannonball Adderley. Machito's large ensemble setting of Latin jazz is upheld by the Machito Orchestra, led by his son Mario, and the Afro-Latin Jazz Orchestra.

Mario Bauzá Mario Bauzá developed his trumpet skills in Cuba, and learned the subtleties of jazz in New York City. His collaborations with the great Latin musicians, including his brother- in-law Machito, as well as the top bebop musicians such as Dizzy Gillespie, lit the fuse for an explosion of Latin jazz in the 1940’s and 1950’s.

530 531 Tito Puente Born in New York City to Puerto Rican parents, Tito Puente aspired to be a dancer until he injured his leg as a boy. Inspired by jazz drummer Gene Krupa, he began to study percussion, and soon became the most famous timbales player on the scene. Puente's talent and charisma as a performer allowed his orchestra to become the preeminent Latin jazz group.

Tito was a master of the timbales, which is an integral part of the salsa and Latin jazz percussion ensemble (along with congas and usually a third percussionist who plays claves, maracas, and other percussion. Tito Puente’s most famous song

530 http://0.tqn.com/d/jazz/1/0/d/-/-/-/Mario-Bauza-for-Latin-Jazz-Profiles.jpg 531 http://www.drummerworld.com/drummers/Tito_Puente.html

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was “Oye Como Va”, often mistakenly attributed to Carlos Santana or other Latin American artists. Tito Puente never slowed down for a minute, recording his 100th album in 1992, opening a restaurant (see it in the wonderful film Calle 54) and establishing the Tito Puente Scholarship fund in order to help young artists work in music.532

Ray Barretto Ray Barretto learned to play percussion on the head of a banjo while stationed in Germany as a U.S. soldier. It was then that he decided to devote his life to music, and upon returning to New York, he became one of the most sought after conga players. As a bandleader he won the hearts of Latin music and jazz audiences.533

534 Eddie Palmieri Eddie Palmieri began his music career as a drummer. When he switched to piano, he kept a percussive approach, and incorporated the harmonies of Thelonious Monk. This made his band, which famously included two trombones, one of the most hard-hitting and experimental Latin jazz small groups around.

532 http://jazz.about.com/od/introductiontojazz/tp/Five_Latin_Jazz_Legends.htm 533 http://0.tqn.com/d/jazz/1/0/s/-/-/-/Ray_Barretto_Fania.jpg 534 http://0.tqn.com/d/jazz/1/0/t/-/-/-/Eddie_Palmieri_Concord.jpg Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 576

Cal Tjader535

Vibraphonist Cal Tjader’s repertoire contained a significant amount of Latin jazz, featuring new Latin pieces, and reworkings of jazz standards in Afro- Cuban styles mixed with smooth, creative improvisations.

Poncho Sanchez Poncho Sanchez got his start as a conguero with Cal Tjader before striking out on his own to form one of the most popular and significant Latin Jazz ensembles today. In addition to doing remakes of jazz standards, the group uses elements of rhythm and blues as well.536

Latin jazz took several turns in the ‘60’s and ‘70’s. There were periods when the flute- based charanga was most popular, and the funk and soul-influenced boogaloo dominated the recording market for a period. But Machito pressed on with his brassy large ensemble. He toured throughout the world in the ‘70’s, and died on stage while performing at Ronnie Scott’s club in London in 1984. The large ensemble setting for Latin jazz persists as well, most notably in two Latin jazz big bands that are offshoots of Machito’s band and Mario Bauzá’s later ensemble. They are the Machito Orchestra, led by Machito’s son Mario Grillo, and the Afro-Cuban Jazz Orchestra, led by Arturo O’Farrill. The fusion of Latin and jazz styles is a concept that today’s artists explore with undying fervor.537

535 http://www.thejazzman.com.au/Page/images/pic-gallery-cal-tjader.jpg 536 http://txmusicfest.com/artists.htm 537 http://jazz.about.com/od/latinjazz/p/Machito.htm Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 577

Jamaica Jamaica sits in the western Caribbean, some ninety miles south of Cuba. It was originally settled by the Arawak Indians from South America. The island was "colonized" by the Spanish when Columbus landed there in 1494. As in the other European settlements, the great majority of Native Americans were wiped out due to disease or warfare, and the survivors were made to be slaves. Jamaica developed a large African population due to the high number of slaves that were brought over by the Spanish in the 16th and 17th centuries. In 1655, the English conquered Jamaica, and while leaving, the slaves were freed. The freed slaves became known as maroons, and for the next eighty six years, the maroons fought with the English over land and human rights until a treaty finally acknowledged the rights of the freed slaves to hold certain lands. In 1834, slavery was abolished, but as in the U.S., finding a higher quality of life and a job was quite difficult for African Americans in Jamaica. After a long struggle to overcome English colonial policies, Jamaica became an independent nation. The main language is a specifically Jamaican type of Creole-English that contains African influences and a strong African accent.

From the Arawaks of early times, it is known that small drums, wooden trumpets, and tambourines existed at the very least. The African music and the English music fused together over time, taking the rhythms, vocals, and scales of West Africa and combining them with the folk songs of the English. In modern times, there are over twenty five different types of drums used, ranging in all sizes, and may be played with the hands or with sticks. Tambourines, shakers, and bamboo scrapers are also used. In the maroon colonies, the raucous sound of the abeng, (made from a pierced cow's horn and blown into sideways) will penetrate the maroon areas.538 Fifes, bottles, and a comb and paper combination, make for additional percussion instruments.

538 Burnett, Michael, Jamaican Music. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982, p. 15. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 578

A Maroon blows an abeng (cow horn) during celebrations in Trelawny, Jamaica. Maroons used the abeng to communicate with each other during wars with the British during slavery between the 17th to 19th centuries. The word abeng comes from the Twi language of the Akon in Ghana, and means 'animal horn' or musical instrument. It is now used during traditional Maroon celebrations and gatherings.539

As in the other African-based religions, many exciting rhythms come from the drums in the religious ceremonies. The Congolese term kumina is used to describe the religious ceremonies in Jamaica. Many hymns and religious stories also came out of the Christian Revivalist Movement as well, which began in 1861. "Ever since 1861, there have been religious groups which have followed the ideas of the original revivalists. Today they are called Zionists and Pocomanians.540 Many of the mission grounds have flagpoles, and the flags are designed to attract spirits. Like some Native American feasts, a certain amount of food is left for the spirits. Music is very lively, with many drums often playing into the wee hours of the morning. Some celebrations may last as long as three days.

Rastafarianism One of the most well-known religious movements that have had a significant impact on the is that of the Rastafarians – the seeds of which were planted by Marcus Garvey (1887-1940), a Jamaican preacher who spoke of freeing the black population from colonial domination, advocating a return of the Jamaican people to Africa. Originating in the 1930's, the Rastafarians were known for their long hair worn in dreadlocks, woolen turban hats, and for living in groups. In the

539 http://www.lightstalkers.org/images/show/142210 540 Burnett, p. 24. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 579

Rastafarian religion, the people (Rastas) believed that Haile Selasse (known as Ras Tafari Makonnen, the now deceased emperor of Ethiopia), was the king that Garvey prophesied would take the Jamaican people back to Ethiopia.

Haile Selasse – King Rastafari541

542 Three wooden drums are typically used in Rastafarian music

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The rhythms of Rastafarian drums are referred to as Nyahbingi drumming.

Nyahbingi has come down to the Rastaman to signify “death to the oppressors, both black and white”. Therefore, it is through prayer, music and biblical reasonings that the Rastaman chants bingi, calling on the forces of nature to destroy the powers of wickedness.543

Thunder: This is the bottom of the bingi ensemble; there are rarely more than two thunder players at a gathering. It is a typical double-headed bass drum played with a mallet. It is played with an open tone on “1” and a dampened stroke on “3”. Occasionally, the thunder player will syncopate the rhythm.

Funde: The funde (tapped with the fingers) is actually the middle drum used in Nyahbingi; it maintains the dominant heartbeat rhythm as the funde player makes steady, dampened strokes on “1&”…“3&”. It is thus dually known as the heartbeat and has the least improvisational role, but is one of the most important to carrying the feel of the music and vibe. The Funde player must have a steady rhythm to continue keeping the heartbeat of the music playing.

Repeater: The repeater, or keteh, is the smallest and highest pitched (single headed) drum. The drummer tends to play around “2 e & a” and “4 e & a”, with a syncopated, rather than a backbeat feel. These beats are important to the overall feel of the Nyahbingi rhythm, but the repeater has a very complex and improvisational role in bingi because it is seen as the carrier of spirit and fire of the music.

Shaka: The shekere (shaker), which is commonly found throughout Africa, the Caribbean, Latin America, has a place in Nyahbingi. The shekere player has a somewhat flexible role: He/she has been known to play on “1”, “1&”, “1” and “3” or “1&”…“3&” [The following should be noted regarding the curious nomenclature of this instrument—Perhaps the word is a simple corruption of the proper pronunciation; and there is the possibility that it is a more calculated allusion to the Zulu word for fire, shaka.]

543 http://www.rhythmweb.com/jamaica/nyabinghi.htm Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 581

A Nice Collection of Shekeres. As you can see, no two are alike!544

Other percussion instruments used are tambourines and scrapers. As this music became modernized, horns, drum set, electric bass, guitars and synthesizers were added. The drums of Rasta music are painted in red, green, and gold - the colors of the Ethiopian flag. Ethiopia is considered to be the true homeland of the Rastas. Count Ossie, one of the first Rastafarians, borrowed ideas from Burru drumming, an earlier kind of Jamaican music.

Other types of songs that were evolving in the early twentieth century in Jamaica were the work songs, which continued in full force in Jamaica. The previously- mentioned “Day O”, made famous by Harry Belafonte, was originally a Jamaican song. Children’s songs also make up an important part of Jamaican culture, and ring game songs involve dance imitation, which in some ways are similar to the ring shout dance done during the plantation days in the U.S.

One of the early forms of dance music in Jamaica involved Bruckins dancing, which began as a celebration of the end of slavery. This slow, stately dance involved drumming and singing, and often would involve a competition between two rival musical groups. Other dances from slavery times were the Tambo (a flat-footed style of dancing originating in Nigeria), the Jankunnu (which used the fife and drum and an Ashanti style of dancing in a holiday parade at Christmas), and the quadrille

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(a French dance popular with English settlers throughout the western hemisphere). Quadrilles would be a dance for four couples at a time, and in Jamaica instruments would be the fiddle or fife, banjo, guitar, rhumba box, drums, and even upright bass.

Mento and Jamaican Calypso The national dance of Jamaica; however, is mento, and much in the same way that calypso is the national dance of Trinidad, mento is played and danced everywhere in Jamaica, particularly in the rural areas. Mento has an emphasis on the fourth beat of each measure of four beats, giving it a special rhythmic characteristic.

The classic mento sound is the acoustic, informal, folksy rural style. Still sometimes referred to as “country music” in Jamaica, it's easy to imagine farmers and their families celebrating harvest with a mento dance. Typical instruments included banjo, acoustic guitar, a home-made saxophone, clarinet or flute made from bamboo, a variety of hand percussion and a rhumba box. Often, these songs had a proto-reggae beat, and sounded like an acoustic form of reggae. (The mento proto-reggae beat was especially reminiscent of reggae where the dub echo doubles the guitar chop. Bob Marley's "Sun Is Shining" from "Kaya" is one example.

With lineage back to the Caribbean-jazz bands of the 1920,s, there was a second style of mento. This was the more urban, polished, jazzy dance band style. If you are looking at a mento label and the word "Orchestra" appears in the artist's name, it's most probably a dance band recording.

An Urban Style Mento Band545

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In dance band mento, home-made instruments were replaced by professionally- made saxophones, clarinets and basses. Often, the banjo was left behind in favor of electric guitar. Along with clarinet, piano was often a featured instrument, as the music became overtly jazzy. Percussion was less rustic, and sometimes had a Latin feel. Almost all of the rural style's rough edges were smoothed out. In the 1960’s, a calypso inflection was often heard in urban reggae, replacing the jazz sound. Dance band mento seems to have largely died out by the 1970’s, while the original rural style continued. However, the musicians of this style of mento contributed greatly to the jazz that was such an important element of ska.

Though mento bands recorded a handful of quadrille and mento instrumentals, most mento songs had vocals. Mento's lyrics are typically a lot of fun. As a whole, they portray the issues, large and small – of life in Jamaica. Some songs are about Jamaica itself. Some described Jamaican foods and recipes - just one way that mento gave a real slice of Jamaican life in the 1950’s. (There were so many songs about various fruits; it could be considered a sub-genre.) The trials and tribulations of Jamaicans migrating to England was a popular topic. All manner of relationships between people are explored, as is the problematic and comic relationship between man and animal. Though there a few serious or sad songs, the great majority were happy and positive.

Humor was integral to many mento songs. This sometimes includes bawdy lyrics, filled with double entendres, which delighted Jamaicans and tourists alike. These songs were very popular, and can be seen as the beginning of what grew into the explicit lyrics in reggae. By today's standards, mento naughtiness is very mild. Yet, the popularity of these records led to a scare where the Jamaican government considered banning native 'calypso' records! There were also topical songs describing and commenting on the latest styles and news stories. This may be the earliest song writing tradition in mento, along with adapting Jamaican folk songs. Two mento lyricists stand out: Count Lasher and Everard Williams, who each wrote a number of classic songs. There are very few of what could be described as traditional love songs in mento. Also refreshingly absent are self-aggrandizing lyrics. Mento artists had enough to say without singing about their own preeminence.

In addition to songs of Jamaican origin, many Trinidadian calypso songs made their way into the mento repertoire. For example, "Hold 'em Joe" was first recorded by Lord Executioner in the 1910’s. While a number of songs found their way to Jamaica's shores, the calypso practice of extemporaneously improvising lyrics did Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 584

not. Mento songs aimed specifically at Jamaica's tourists, such as "Take Her To Jamaica (Where The Rum Comes From)" were also part of the mix.546

Ska As rhythm and blues and rock n' roll gained popularity in the U.S. in the 1940's and 1950's, the music had an impact in Jamaica also. The Jamaicans updated mento to include rhythm and blues. The first post-rock popular music style in Jamaica was known as ska, which flourished from 1959-1965.

Like mento before it, ska was born out of combining musical elements. Both mento and jazz were combined to produce a new style that was initially called 'Shuffle'. Popular shuffle hits were recorded by Neville Esson and Owen Grey and the Overtakers. The newly set-up recording studios were always on the look out for the next new sound. With the popularity of American R&B artists like Fats Domino and Louis Jordan, many Jamaican performers incorporated the twelve-bar blues chord progressions and boogie bass lines with mento guitar rhythms. Increasing emphasis was placed on the offbeat rhythms of mento. The offbeats became shorter and more detached. These distinct syncopated rhythms were sounded on guitar and piano. The new style of music became part of the “new” ska music.

According to Bunny Lee, “The first person to record this 'ska' rhythm was Ernest Ranglin when performing with Cluet Johnson (Clue J.) and the Blues Busters. One day he was trying to get the guitars to play something, and him say 'make the guitars go Ska! Ska! Ska!' And that's the way the ska name was born.” Clue J was well known for greeting his friends with a call of 'Love Skavoovie'. Many believe the name of ska is a shortened form of this greeting.547

Ska quickly became the most dominant form of music in Jamaica. Its success coincided with the independence and the departure of the English in 1962. There was a new attitude towards indigenous music. Ska was already enormously popular in Jamaica and music producers attempted to export it to the rest of the world, a move that was supported by the government. It was the national music of Jamaica and was demonstrated to the the world at the 1964 Worlds Fair in New York. The Jamaican delegates included Byron Lee and the Dragonaires, Jimmy Cliff, Prince Buster and dancers Ronnie Nasralla and Jannette Phillips, who taught the world the moves for the 'Backy ', the 'Rootsman Skank' and the 'Ska'.548

546 http://www.mentomusic.com/WhatIsMento.htm 547 http://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=ska&defid=1927138 548 http://users.bigpond.net.au/lvisser/skahistory.html Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 585

Byron Lee and the Dragonaires549

The music was the first in Jamaica to use large sound (p.a.) systems, and the lyrics tended to focus on serious social and political problems in the country. The rhythm section from rock and rhythm and blues bands became more common in the Jamaican bands in this time period. Ska was basically a fairly fast, bouncy music in duple meter.

Rock Steady As ska matured, it began to slow down, and the melodies became more complex. As in the U.S., the bass instrument of choice became the electric bass over the upright bass, and the bass lines became much more prominent. The rhythm guitar would play "chunky" afterbeats on beats two and four. The latter two characteristics would become significant in reggae music as well. The style of slowed-down ska became known as “rock steady”, and was popular from 1965-1969.

The style of dancing to rock steady was slower, and "less optimistic" among the Trenchtown residents, and the mood was definitely anti-government. In a society which denied not only their identity but also their existence, they sought solace in the group identity of "rude boys". A number of rock steady and reggae musicians were rude boys:

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Being a was a way of being somebody, when the wider society was telling you that you were nobody. Rude boys connected with the so-called 'underworld', a layer of people who lived outside the law, and who have always patronized Jamaican dance music.550

These youths were the primary listeners to ska in Jamaica. They were rebellious, out of work and reacted against economic tensions. They emulated Hollywood gangster fashions by wearing black suits, thin ties and pork pie hats – the type of look that is still seen today in Tarantino’s movies Reservoir Dogs and Pulp Fiction. Rude Boys often lived outside of the law and were also sometimes called 'Scofflaws' (people who belittle the law).

Ska lyrics at the time reflected the life and times of Rude Boys. Some examples include The Soul Brothers' “Lawless Street”, The Heptones' “Gunmen Comin to Town”, Desmond Dekkers' “007 Shanty Town”, Dandy Livingstones' “A Message to You Rudi” and Prince Busters' “Judge Dread” who handed out 400 year sentences to Rude Boys. Later, Clement Dodd backed a young group who envisioned themselves as rudies - The Wailers Bob Marley, Bunny Livingstone (Wailer) and Peter Macintosh (later shortened toTosh).

552 551 The way rude boys danced to the music also influenced the ska sound. They rhythmically pumped their arms back and forward and adopted a more menacing posture than the traditional style demonstrated by Ronnie and Jannette. As a result the music became more menacing. Bass lines became more syncopated,

550 Barrow, Steve, "The Story of Jamaican Music: Tougher than Tough". LIner notes for Compact Disc Edition, 1993, p. 15. 551 http://ecx.images-amazon.com/images/I/61FOVmvAyML._SL500_AA280_.jpg 552 http://ecx.images-amazon.com/images/I/61gPCWYHzGL._SL500_AA280_.jpg Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 587

rejecting the easy going walking boogie style – more evidence of the continual evolution of this musical style.553

Reggae Reggae, which means "the king's music," became popular in Jamaica in 1969, and remains popular today. The four key musical ingredients for reggae are the short, repeated bass guitar riff, a repeated percussion rhythm, the guitar afterbeats mentioned in rock steady, and the melody, which consists of short repeated phrases adapted to the words sung in a strong Jamaican accent. The social and political nature of the lyrics is one of the major forces behind the continuing popularity of reggae in the mother country, while the catchy and danceable beat is the main reason for its worldwide popularity.

Some of the major artists and contributors to reggae in the late 1960's were Lee “Scratch” Perry, Jimmy Cliff, and Toots and the Maytals. Lee Perry was known mostly for his producing, helping to shape the reggae sound, and assisting the careers of Bob Marley, Peter Tosh, and Bunny Wailer.

Lee “Scratch” Perry554

553 http://users.bigpond.net.au/lvisser/skahistory.html 554 http://www.azevedo.ca/scratch/default.aspx

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Jimmy Cliff became popular with his first hit "Hurricane Hattie" and his music had a huge impact in England as well as in Jamaica. Toots and the Maytals formed in 1962, and they dominated the pop charts in the 1960's with hits like "Fever", "It's You", and "Never You Change". Their album, The Sensational Maytals is now considered a collector's item. They remained popular throughout the 1970's.

555 556

In the 1970's reggae matured and solidified. The major artists and contributors were Peter Tosh, Third World, Steel Pulse, and Bob Marley.

557

555 http://o.scdn.co/300/19f2a84143e9cc8daf9efd965c4c1d244acf11f2 556 http://www.uwmfm.pl/uploads/files/muzyka/toots-and-the-maytals-the-sensational-maytals- lp..jpg 557 http://www.audiography.com.au/Album%20Gallery.htm

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Peter Tosh had been with the Wailers, and although the group split up in 1974, Tosh continued to record as an individual artist. He recorded "Mark of the Beast" after he was beaten up by the Jamaican police in 1975 - a song which was banned by Jamaican radio stations. In 1977, he released his Equal Rights album after being hounded by his militant and outspoken views. In 1978 he was again beaten up by the Jamaican police and then parted from his record label. He signed with Records and toured with the group on their U.S. tour. Tosh was a powerful figure in reggae music whose career was marked with controversy, yet he always preached equal rights and justice for the people of Jamaica.

558 The group Third World formed from some of the members of Inner Circle, another reggae group. They fused reggae with rhythm and blues and disco, traveled to England, and later toured with Bob Marley and the Wailers. They helped popularize reggae in the U.S. as well.

Steel Pulse in 1978559

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Steel Pulse was one of Britain's most popular reggae groups which fought for acceptance from critics who labeled their music as diluted. They toured with Bob Marley and added a unique visual component to the tour, as they dressed in costumes such as convict uniforms, African robes, and preacher's gowns. Their themes concerned black political emancipation and increased African spiritual consciousness. They also fused punk rock elements with reggae at times.

Bob Marley A young Bob Marley quit school to pursue his one ambition: music. Living in a ghetto section of Kingston called Trenchtown, Marley practiced with Bunny Wailer, Joe Higgs, and Peter McIntosh (Peter Tosh). Beginning as a ska group, they enjoyed a number of hits in the early and middle 1960's. Marley began his conversion to Rastafarianism in 1967, and producer Lee Perry began to help the group. By the early 1970's the Wailers were receiving major advertising backing, marketing, and recognition not known to other Jamaican artists. Marley had such a string of hit songs through the 1970's that it is difficult to name a select few. "Simmer Down" (1963), "Stir it Up" (1967), "Soul Rebel" (1970), "Natty Dred" (1975), and "Exodus" (1977) are just a few of many well known songs. Although Marley was by no means the only reggae artist, he represents a trademark for the 1970's style.

Bob Marley560

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In the early 1970's, reggae slowed down a bit more, and the recording technique of dubbing (inserting new vocal tracks on top of old, or slightly modified instrumental tracks) became commonplace. A significant movie that helped to introduce new reggae artists of the 1970's was The Harder They Come, which starred Jimmy Cliff. The soundtrack to this film became very significant for a number of reggae artists.

The 1970's in Jamaica was also the decade of the DJ phenomenon, where records would be spun out of the backs of pick up trucks, that often carried huge loudspeakers, and a "party" would spring up anywhere, with the DJ's often talking in a "patter" over the music to add a commentary of some sort. This was certainly the beginning of the first modern-day "rappers" who talked over pre-existing music, a style that would become an important part of the hip hop culture to come in the U.S. a decade later. By the mid 1970's all the salient features of modern Jamaican dancehall music - sound systems, new studio techniques, dynamic producers, and voluble deejays - were fully established, and continue to serve Jamaican culture up to the present.561

The music has been popular in Britain and the U.S., sustaining an international impact. A large number of Jamaicans were already living in England when reggae was popular. "The Beatles used the reggae sound in the song Ob-la-di, Ob-la-da. The Rolling Stones copied the reggae beat in a number of their songs, and Mick Jagger later played in concert with Bob Marley. The Police were influenced by reggae as well. Night Doctor still plays reggae throughout England, and the bands Misty and Steel Pulse were much influenced by the Rasta religion.562

Dancehall and Ragga The late 1970's were a violent and dangerous time for those living in the ghettos of the cities. Bob Marley was shot by gunmen (he survived but passed away from cancer in 1981), and curfews attempted to curtail the anti-government music most of the DJ's were playing in the streets. Although ganja (marijuana), was always a major part of ghetto life and Rastafarianism in an on-again-off-again system of varying stages of legality, cocaine (illegal) invaded the ghettos and as a result, violent crime skyrocketed. The music evolved more into the studios and the , and the music known as dancehall music has become the focus for Jamaican music in the 1980's and 1990's. 'Dancehall' is essentially reggae music with a basic rock drum beat (more often played on electric drums rather than acoustic) and pop lyrics rather than the former political and spiritual lyrics popular

561 Barrow, pp. 21-22. 562 Burnett, p. 44. Cultural Music Perspectives © Fall 2014 592

in the 1970’s. Vocalists such as Barrington Levy, Half Pint, and Coco Tea made their mark in the early 1980's. DJ's such as King Jammy became just as important as the musicians themselves.

Ragga is characterized by the use of computerized beats and sequenced melodic tracks in reggae songs. Ragga is usually said to have been invented with "(Under Me) Sleng Teng" by Wayne Smith (1985 in music). Ragga barely edged out dancehall as the dominant form of Jamaican music in the 1980’s. DJ and vocalist team Chaka Demus and Shabba Ranks proved more enduring than the competition, and helped inspire an updated version of the rudeboy culture called raggamuffin.

563

Dancehall was sometimes violent in lyrical content, and several rival performers made headlines with their feuds across Jamaica (most notably Beenie Man vs Bounty Killer). Dancehall emerged from pioneering recordings in the late 1970’s by Barrington Levy with Roots Radics backing and Junjo Lawes as producer. The Roots Radics were the pre-eminent backing band for dancehall style. Yellowman, Ini Kamoze, Charlie Chaplin and General Echo helped popularize the style along with producers like Sugar Minott.

The 1980’s saw a rise in reggae music from outside of Jamaica. The UK has long been a hotbed of Jamaican culture in exile, due to a large number of Jamaican immigrants seeking economic betterment. Reggae and ska influenced American and British punk bands of the 1970’s and 1980’s, such as The Clash, Elvis Costello and the Attractions, The Police and Nina Hagen. Bands including The Specials and

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Madness became popular with the British ska revival called “two tone.” During this time, reggae particularly influenced African popular music, where Sonny Okusuns (Nigeria), John Chibadura (Zimbabwe), Lucky Dube (South Africa) and (Ivory Coast) became stars.

The 1980’s also saw the end of the dub (instrumental, electronic remixes) era in Jamaica, though dub has remained a popular and influential style in the UK and to a lesser extent throughout Europe and the US. Dub has merged with electronic music for a mingling of styles. Variations of dancehall continued in popularity into the mid-1990’s. Some of the most violent performers of the previous decade converted to Rastafarianism or otherwise changed their lyrical contents. Artists like Buju Banton (Till Shiloh) experienced significant crossover success in foreign markets, while Beenie Man, Bounty Killer and others developed a sizable American following due to their frequent guesting on albums by gangsta rappers like Wu-Tang Clan and Jay-Z. Some ragga musicians, including Beenie Man, Shabba Ranks and Capleton, publicly converted to a new style of conscious music-making. Other trends included the minimalist digital tracks which began with Dave Kelly's "Pepper Seed" in 1995, alongside the return of love balladeers like Beres Hammond.

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American punk ska bands like No Doubt, Mighty, Mighty Bosstones and Sublime became popular in the mid-1990’s, influenced by 1980’s pioneers like Operation Ivy. American, British, and European electronic musicians used reggae-oriented beats to create further hybrid electronic music styles. Dub, world music, and electronic music continue to intertwine, influence each other, and create new sub-genres into the 2000’s. Recorded music went digital in the studio, creating a new potential for excellence in Jamaican music.

Not only did DJ's influence the movement in the U.S., but hip hop rhythms from New York influenced Jamaican music in the late 1980's as well. Some Jamaican artists like Shabba Ranks, Super Cat, Tiger, Cobra, and Buju Banton signed with international record companies. Although most Jamaican musicians have emerged from a harsh reality of poverty and indifference, the simplicity and sincerity of the music has made an international impact and appeal that has evolved successfully through changing times.

Zouk Music from Guadaloupe and Martinique Zouk arose in the mid-1980’s - a combination of European, African and Indian music. Elements of (a family of hand drums in Guadaloupan folk music) tambour, ti bwa and biguine vidé are prominent in zouk.

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Though there are many diverse styles of zouk, some commonalities exist. The French Creole tongue of Martinique and is a distinctive part of the music. Generally, zouk is based around star singers, with little attention given to instrumentalists, and is based almost entirely around studio recordings.

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The band Kassav' remain the best known zouk group. Kassav' drew in influences from 19th century European dances (quadrilles, waltzes, mazurkas) along with more contemporary Caribbean influences like reggae and salsa music. Zouk live shows soon began to draw on American and European rock and heavy metal traditions, and the genre spread across the world, primarily in developing countries.

Dedication This book was written for all of you who have decided to take Music of the Americas. If you’re reading this, it looks liked you made it through this book! Congratulations, and thank you for your interest! I am very thankful for being given the ability and the courage to write this text, as it’s far easier to criticize someone else's textbook than it is to write your own! I am eternally grateful to my mom and dad, who always supported my education and taught me its value. I can never thank my wife Toni enough, who gave me unconditional love and support every single day throughout the writing and constant editing of this book. After a miraculous survival from a near-fatal accident, I happily return my love and support to you. I couldn't have done this without you.

Readers – I don’t believe in goodbyes, so -- until next time ---.

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