Arnolds Spekke HISTORY OF LATVIA AN OUTLINE JUMAVA CONTENTS Introduction 11 I. The Geographical Setting 21 Ice Period; The Baltic Shield; Geological Formations and the Baltic Sea; Peoples around the Baltic; Geographical Background; Development of Rivers and Mountains; History of Baits and Other Races; Nature of the Latvian Country; Latvian Peasant. II. The First Millennium A. D. 35 Historical Sources; Language Group and Original Home; Baits and Slavs; Greek and Latin Documents; Coast of Amber; Baits in the Early Middle Age Sources; Byzantine Texts and Arabs; Scandinavian Inva­ sion; River Routes and Trade. III. The Indo-European Tradition 55 Archaeological Data; Latvian Language; Mythology; Dainas and Poetry; National Tales and Legends; Folklore; Customs; Festivals; Art; National Costumes; Villages; Castle Hills. IV. The Vikings and the Latvians 76 Germanic Expansion; Scandinavian Incursions on the Baltic Littoral; Northmen in Kurzeme; Saxo Grammaticus; Sagas; Activity of the Baits; Material about the Kurs and Semigallians; Idrisi and His Maps; Diffe­ rent Periods of Viking Expansion. V. The Slav Expansion 97 First Slav Movements; Place of Origin of the Slavs; Historical Sources; Expansion of the Slavs; Importance of the Two Large Waterways; Slav Imperialism; Slavs and Baits; Linguistic and Archaeological Data; An­ cient Russian Chronicles and Baits; Baltic German Historians and Their Conclusions; The Views of Latvian Historians. VI. The Knights in Livonia 115 The German Movement; Drang nach Osten; The New Settlements; Three Social Elements; Christianization and Its Consequences; Crusades; The 7 Teutonic Order; Subjugation of Old Prussia; The German Attacks on Livonia; Letgallians; Kurish Revolt; Semigallian Struggles; The Rhymed Chronicle; Livonia after the Conquest; Kurish Kings. VII. The Livonian Confederation 142 Political Situation; Lithuanian Expansion; Hanseatic League; Western Information about Livonia; Baltic Cartography; Political Life of the Or­ der; Battle of Tannenberg; Livonia and Neighbours; War with Muscovy; Internal Relations; Social Conditions and Jurisdiction. VIII. East and West 165 Collapse of the Order; Reformation; The Political Powers round Li­ vonia; Muscovites; Livonian War; Poles; Russian Aggression; Foreign Observers; Origin of Serfdom; Privilege of Sigismund Augustus; King Stephen; Polish Documents. IX. Catholic Counter Reformation 186 Polish-Lithuanian Administration; Jesuits; Livonian Peasant and His Position; Polish-Swedish Conflict and Consequences; Livonian Car­ tography; Humanistic Literature; Development of Latvian Literature. X. The Swedes in Livonia 205 European Conflagration; Political Survey; Swedish Rule; Agrarian Leg­ islation; Economic Interest and Farming; Charles XI and His Reforms; Education; Translation of Holy Scriptures. XI. The Duchy of Kurland 223 Duchy's Survival; International Situation; Internal Efforts; Nobles and Their Privileges; Duke Jacob and His Policy; Development of Trade and Industry; Relations with Peasants; External Influence; Latvian Litera­ ture in Kurland; G. Mancelius; P. Einhorn. XII. The Russians and the Baltic 243 Tsar Peter I; Political Situation; Narva and Riga; Russian Invasion; Con­ cessions to the Baltic Nobility; Projects on the Rights of Land; Declara­ tion of Rosen; The Peasants; Description of Vidzeme by a Foreigner; The Effects of the Northern War; Religious Movements. XIII. The Influence of the French Revolution 259 Alexander I and Napoleon; March on Moscow; The New Ideas; G. Merkel and His Struggle; Landtag and Peasants; Political Conflicts; Agricultural Crisis and Effects; The Germans on Latvian Nationality; Education; Latvian Literature. XIV. The National Movement 275 National Movements in Europe; Insurrections and Rebellions in East­ ern Europe; National Revival in Latvia; K. Valdemars; Literary Devel­ opments; Russification; Scientists and Writers; Social Changes; Indus­ trial Workers; Political Parties; The Revolution of 1905; Russian Policy; Cultural Achievements; Song Festivals; Religion. XV. The First World War 292 The Cause and the Beginning of the War; Destruction in Latvia; German Colonization Plans; The Latvians Mobilized; Latvian Rifle Regiments; Christmas Battles of 1916; The Russian Revolution; Demobilization; "The Red Rifles"; Return of the Troops to Latvia. XVI. Latvian Independence 308 Russian Revolution of 1917; Resolutions on Freedom; Treaty of Brest- Litovsk; Partition of Latvian Territory; The Latvian National Council; The State of Latvia Proclaimed; Bolshevik Attack; Temporary Occupa­ tion; Baltic Cause in Paris; German Policy; Landeswehr Putsch; Bermont Attack; Anti-Bolshevik Front; Armistice with Russia and Peace; Events in Estonia, Finland and Lithuania; The Fate of Poland. XVII. The Free State 328 Initial Difficulties; Effects of the War; Agrarian Reform; Land Bill; Eco­ nomic Progress; Farming; Standard of Living; Trade; Industry; Educa­ tion; Institutions; Laws; Constituent Assembly; Latvian Constitution;. Foreign Policy. / XVIII. Ten Years of Foreign Occupation 345 The Second World War; Compulsory Pacts with Soviet Russia; German Repatriation; Soviet Ultimatum and Occupation of the Baltic States; Puppet Governments; Elections and the "Parliament"; German-Soviet Pact; Incorporation into Soviet Russia; Nationalization; Kolkhozes (Col­ lective Farms); Industry Political Dictatorship and Propaganda; Op­ pression, Reprisals and Persecutions; Liquidation of the Latvian Army; Soviet Tribunals; Deportations; Labour and Concentration Camps; German-Soviet War; German Occupation. Colonization Plans — 398. Administration; The Herrenvolk;Terror and Deportations. Conclusion 368 The Latvian Partisans; The Latvian Legion References 376 Bibliography 387 List of Plates 397 List of Illustrations 401 List of Maps 406 LIST OF PLATES with bibliographic notes I. Pre-Baltic pottery Kurzeme, Zallte (Jg), Rutenieki. Photograph from LVVM. Approx. V2 of actual size. E. Sturms, Die erste schnurkeramische Siedlung in Lettland. Contributions of Baltic University Hamburg 1946; Suedostbaltikum A. Steinzeit (Estland, Lettland, Litauen); Latvijas akmens laikmeta materiali I, Latvijas aizvestures materiali II, Riga 1936. M. Ebert, Reallexikon der Vorgeschichte, XIII. Finnish - Ugrian pottery of the late Neolitithic Age Latgale, Dviete (II). Photograph from LVVM. Approx. Vs of actual size. R. Indreko, Origin and Area of Settlement of the Fenno-Ugrian Peoples, Heidelberg 1948. E. Sturms, Dvietes un Lubanas kaula senlietas, Senatne un maksla I, Riga 1938. II. Stone battle axes of the primitive Baits Photograph from LVVM. Approx. V3 of actual size. E. Sturms, Akmens laikmets Latvijd I. Dzives vietas II. Savrupatradumi un kulturas raksturo- jums, Riga 1927. Ancient Baltic bronze war-axes Photograph from LWM. Approx. V2 of actual size. E. Sturms, Die aeltere Bronsezeit im Ostbaltikum, Berlin 1936; Die bronsezeitlichen Funde in Lettland, Congressus secundus archaeol. Balticorum, Riga 1931. III. Silver cross-bow brooch with ends shaped like animal heads Kurzeme, Grobina (Lp). Photograph from LVVM. Approx % of actual size. N. Aberg, Ostpreussen in der Volkerwanderungsseit, Uppsala 1919. Semigallian drinking-horn of the 8th century Vidzeme, Aizkraukle (R), Lejas Biteni. Photograph of reconstruction from LVVM. Approx. Vi of actual size. IV. Bronze horse figurines of the 11th century Vidzeme, Daugmale castle-hill (R). Photograph from LWM. Approi. lA 397 of actual size. V. Qinters, Daugmales pilskalna 1936. g. izrakumi, Senatne un maksla IV, Riga 1936. Latgallian pottery. Photograph from LVVM. V. Fragment of ornamented limestone disk with runic characters Vidzeme, Daugmale castle-hill (R). Photograph from LWM. Actual size. The Nedervalla runic stone, Sweden Photographic archives of the State Historical Museum, Stockholm. VI. The Dobe castle-hill Zemgale, Lielauce (B), Inceni. E. Brastins, Latvijas pilskalni Zemgale un Augszeme, Riga 1926. Excavations on the Mezotne castle-hill Zemgale, Mezotne castle-hill (B). Photograph from LVVM. excavations of 1940, conducted by Dr. V. Qinters. VII. Ancient Latvian bronze with stylized animal heads Photograph from LVVM. Approx. twice the actual size. Bronze horseshoe-brooches of the 11th—12th centuries Photograph from LVVM. Approx. % of actual size. VIII. "Warriors'" bracelets of the 10th and 11th centuries Latgale. Photograph from LVVM. Approx. % of actual size. Centre part of the warriors' bracelet Photograph from LVVM. Enlarged to twice the actual size. IX. Ornaments and costume worn by a Latvian girl of the 12th century Vidzeme, Karli (C). Reconstruction by LVVM of costume and ornaments accord­ ing to the finds of a female grave. X. Old Prussian warriors meeting the Bishop of Prague, St. Adalbert The martyr's death of St. Adalbert. Door panel of Gniezno Cathedral A. Goldschmidt, Die Bronsetueren von Novgorod und Gnesen, Marburg a.L. 1932. XI. The figures of the Virgin Mary and Walter von Plettenberg over the North Gate of Riga Castle P. Arends, Rigas pils, Riga 1938. XII. A Letgallian woman's costume of the 15th century Latgale, Makasani (Rz). Reconstruction of LVVM. XIII. Map of Livonia of 1582 A. Spekke, Latviesi un Livonija 16.g.s„ Riga 1935. The Vatican archives, Nunciatura di Germania, fol. 93. 398 XIV. View of Riga harbour in 1612 Detail from J. C. Brotze's drawings after a drawing by N. Mollin (1612). XV. Riga in 1612 Detail from J. C. Brotze's drawing after a drawing by N. Mollin (1612). XVI. Gustavus II Adolphus. Hornberg, Sveriges Historia, Stockholm, 1940 XVII. Swedish money coined in Riga: Charles XI's