CREATING LASTING LEGACIES AND POWERFUL POSITIONS: A Survey History of the Roles, Traditions, Impacts and Influences of Sixteen First Ladies of the United States, from 1789-2001. By Jess R. Gagliardi A THESIS Submitted to Adams State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of M.A. in United States History May 2015 ABSTRACT CREATING LASTING LEGACIES AND POWERFUL POSITIONS By Jess R. Gagliardi First ladies are an important element in presidential administrations and have parallel structures, as they are in a position to be leaders, have important roles, supported various causes and have tremendous influence over presidents. First ladies have developed this role from scratch, entirely since Martha Washington who built a powerful institution in the federal government. Many first ladies have sponsored programs and causes, and have been role models for the people of their times. At times, activism by these women in support of causes and policies has run afoul of social convention and ideological opposition, consistent with evolving roles and expectations for women. Sixteen first ladies have been highly influential in creating and establishing influence and importance in United States History. The early first ladies of influence and importance include: Martha Washington, Dolley Madison, Sarah Polk, Mary Todd Lincoln, Lucy Hayes, Edith Wilson and Lou Hoover. In 1933, Eleanor Roosevelt significantly changed the role of first lady, becoming a vital facet of the presidential administration. First ladies since 1945 of authority and influence include: Bess Truman, Jacqueline Kennedy, Lady Bird Johnson, Betty Ford, Rosalynn Carter, Nancy Reagan, Barbara Bush and Hillary Clinton. Each of these ladies have established themselves as assets to presidents, and enlarged their public role beyond serving as the unofficial White House hostess. These sixteen first ladies have taken advantage of the opportunity in their positions and created lasting legacies during their tenures as first lady. Copyright Page I dedicate this work to my parents, Al Gagliardi and Mitzi Weese Gagliardi, who have never asked anything except for me to do my best. With their unconditional love, they have encouraged me in all my ambitions and inspire me to be as good as they are. I have been tremendously fortunate with them as parents and hope to continue to make them proud. In February 2013, my world changed forever. My mother passed away while I was in the bulk of my research and writing this thesis. As I continue to cope with her death, I remember her enormous strength and love of life as she battled with cancer, and hope that I can be as strong as her in the face of adversity. Mom and dad: thanks for all the support, love of learning, encouragement, inspiration, and most of all, thanks for giving me life. I love you both, and I always will. i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I have been extremely privileged to have been a part of a department that cares so much for its students. The History, Anthropology, Philosophy, Political Science and Spanish department, and Adams State University, have been hospitable and have become a second family. I truly received an excellent education in my time at ASU. Without my brilliant and encouraging professors, I may not have pursued my interests in history. They have pushed me to become better and made learning enjoyable and entertaining. Dr. Ed Crowther has helped me in a myriad of ways with thinking, writing, and helping develop my history interests, and in other ways over the years. I am extremely lucky to have him push, yet nurture me in my years at ASU. Dr. Rich Loosbrock has encouraged me in many ways, and has been patient with me through this thesis process. I thank him for the extra help and allowing me to expand my interests in all his classes. I am also fortunate for Dr. Mari Centeno who I have shared many laughs and good memories with; I thank her for her serenity. As well, I want to thank Dr. Dick Goddard for his support in my endeavors over the years, and the late Dr. Stuart Hilwig, for his support, advice and laughs in my college journey. I also want to thank my parents, Al and Mitzi, who have offered support throughout my life with unconditional love. From early on in my life, they instilled in me the importance of education and have encouraged me to do my best, to which I am forever grateful. Also, I appreciate the support of my friends and peers I have at ASU. Thanks for the great times in our adventures together; your camaraderie has helped make my college years more enjoyable and entertaining. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Dedication ............................................................................................................................ i Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................. ii Chapter 1: Introduction: More than the President’s Wife ....................................................1 Chapter 2: Literature Review .............................................................................................12 Scholarly Sources...................................................................................................12 First Lady Series, Biographies and Articles ..........................................................16 Popular Works .......................................................................................................20 Chapter 3: Creating, Developing and Inaugurating Traditions with Early First Ladies ....23 Martha Washington: First Lady of a New Nation .................................................24 Dolley Todd Madison: First Lady of a Young Nation ...........................................28 Sarah Polk: First Lady of Diligence.......................................................................31 Mary Todd Lincoln: The Beleaguered First Lady .................................................34 Lucy Hayes: First Lady Paragon of Morality ........................................................40 Edith Wilson: First Lady in Command ..................................................................43 Lou Hoover: First Lady of Airwaves .....................................................................47 Chapter 4: Portrait of an Activist: Eleanor Roosevelt as First Lady ..................................52 Early Life and Early Politics ..................................................................................52 Roosevelt as First Lady ..........................................................................................55 World War II and Social Justice ............................................................................58 Power in the White House .....................................................................................61 Chapter 5: First Ladies in an Age of Activism and Growth ..............................................68 Bess Truman: First Lady of Independence ............................................................68 Jacqueline Kennedy: First Lady of Restoration .....................................................74 Lady Bird Johnson: First Lady of Transformation ................................................78 Betty Ford: First Lady of Symbolic Strength ........................................................83 Rosalynn Carter: First Lady as Proxy Leader ........................................................87 Nancy Reagan: First Lady of Protection ................................................................91 Barbara Bush: First Lady of Literacy ....................................................................97 Hillary Clinton: First Lady of Influence ..............................................................101 Chapter 6: Analyzing the Institution and Roles of the First Lady ...................................107 Summary ..............................................................................................................108 First Lady Analysis ..............................................................................................111 Conclusion ...........................................................................................................114 List of Tables ...................................................................................................................117 iii List of Figures ..................................................................................................................122 Appendix ..........................................................................................................................126 Notes ................................................................................................................................128 Bibliography ....................................................................................................................160 iv LIST OF TABLES Table 1: The Ranking of U.S. First Ladies by Siena Research Institute .........................117 Table 2: America’s First Ladies: The 2008 Poll, The First and Last in… .......................119 Table 3: Historians’ Ranking of First Ladies in 2008......................................................120 Table 4: First Ladies Who Have Testified before Congress ............................................121 v LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Martha Washington ..........................................................................................122 Figure 2: Dolley Todd Madison .......................................................................................122