HEALING THE HEART OF RWANDA: TOWARDS A THEORY OF TRANSFORMATIVE RECONCILIATION A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Cornell University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Julia F Burns May 2011 © 2011 Julia F Burns HEALING THE HEART OF RWANDA: TOWARDS A THEORY OF TRANSFORMATIVE RECONCILIATION Julia F Burns, Ph. D. Cornell University 2011 This study explores post-conflict reconciliation in four local organizations promoting reconciliation in Rwanda: two Christian programs and two women‘s programs. The transformative learning literature from adult education and the reconciliation literature from various fields are synthesized in an effort to develop a theory of transformative reconciliation by analyzing participant experiences within the four organizations. The concept of transformative reconciliation was developed to address well-recognized weaknesses in reconciliation theory and practice, by making distinctions between multiple kinds of reconciliation and clarifying what supports and impedes them. Additionally, certain weaknesses in the transformative learning literature are addressed by applying the theory to the post-genocide Rwandan context. This study employs the qualitative case study method to interpret profoundly personal experiences of genocide and reconciliation within each organization and within the larger sociopolitical context. In addition to years of prior experience in the region, the two fieldwork phases of this study totaled over a year. Beyond the initial survey of many programs, research methods included unstructured interviews of organization leaders and participants, observation of program activities and reconciliation retreats, document analysis, and a wider study of the sociopolitical context of Rwanda. A full case report was created for each organization, and its position within the overall context was closely considered. The findings of this study reveal that Christian organizations are assisted in promoting transformative reconciliation by a combination of political, cultural, psychological, historical, and pedagogical factors. One women‘s empowerment program had less dramatic but potentially more powerful results over the long run. The fourth program for widows of the genocide was quite effective in transformative learning but was limited by contextual factors in promoting transformative reconciliation. Drawing from the four cases, this study offers nine distinct recommendations for reconciliation programming in post conflict environments. In regards to the theory base, this study provides a fruitful way of viewing reconciliation of multiple types within complex sociopolitical environments. It also provides insight into several areas of weakness in transformative learning theory, including: negative transformations, other-than-rational learning processes, the role of power and context, the importance of culture, and the notion of surrender as authentic transformation. BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH Julia Burns, more commonly known as Julie, holds a B.A. in Economics from the University of Minnesota, and a Masters in Public Affairs from Cornell University. Her doctoral research in Adult Education arose out of a desire to understand the terrible events in Central Africa, where she served as a Peace Corps volunteer in the North Kivu region of former Zaire in the years preceding the 1994 genocide in Rwanda. Julie has an extensive background in experiential and transformative educational methodologies, having worked for many years with Outward Bound, National Outdoor Leadership School, and Cornell Outdoor Education. She has also conducted many programs overseas, especially for the college-age population. Her first forays into the post-conflict reconciliation arena were with the Conflict Transformation across Cultures (CONTACT) program at the School for International Training in Brattleboro, Vermont. She has been a consultant to several large development agencies in Central Africa, and continues to work with corporate and non-profit groups in the areas of intercultural communication, conflict resolution, and teambuilding. She is fluent in French and Swahili, and is looking forward to learning new languages in Guinea, West Africa, where she will be posted as the Country Director for Peace Corps in July 2011. iii Dedicated to those who will hear the story of the other. Only they can heal the heart of Rwanda. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Over the years of completing this project, I have had a running mental list of all the people who have made this research possible, and to whom I owe a great debt of gratitude. More people than can be mentioned here have supported me on the path. First and foremost are my committee members, Mark Constas, Rosemary Caffarella, and Johanna Schoss. They have been incredibly patient with my process of coming to terms with both deeply troubling and inspiring events in Rwanda, and with my ―life happening‖ along the way. They have also provided me a wealth of insights, together and apart, that greatly enhanced my ability to think through the hard parts of this research. For their wisdom and humanity, I am so thankful, words cannot suffice. My manner of engaging with this research has been very internal, and therefore I am especially thankful for the few colleagues who have remained by my side throughout. Head and shoulders above the rest is Leah Mayor, who has come through for me in the first hour, the last hour, and many hours in between. I am also incredibly fortunate to be able to draw on a variety of close friendships with Rwandan colleagues who have shared their dark fears and tender hopes with me. My deepest respect to Joseph, Fidela, Danny, Patrick, Charles, Liliose, and Jean though she is not Rwandan by birth. In Rwanda, so many organizations and individuals trusted me to come in and see what they do and who they are, without any assurance I would see the best in them. This includes the fierce survivors of Duhozanye, the strong smiling ladies of Gahaya Links, and the jubilant and profound retreat-goers at the Pilgrim Center for Reconciliation (PCR) and African Evangelistic Enterprise (AEE). Many people in these organizations have not only inspired me, I consider them my mentors, elders, and close friends. Especially cherished among them are people named with both real full names and pseudonym first names in this research, including Arthur and Molly Rouner (at PCR), Daphrose Mukarutamu and Clara (at Duhozanye), Francois and Kathy (at AEE), and Joy Ndungutse (at Gahaya Links). Presenting them with all the love and respect I feel for them and their work, while also expressing my concerns about the political context in Rwanda, has not been easy. v Despite the fits and starts of my graduate study, I have benefited from several sources of funding at Cornell University that have been critical to the success of this project. The Peace Studies Program at Cornell awarded me with several graduate fellowships, while the Einaudi Center for International Studies and the Graduate School funded most of my field research. I especially thank Matthew Evangelista for his support with funding, for providing me enjoyable teaching work with the Peace Studies Program, and for seeming to understand me without the need for many words. The Department of Education and the Cornell Institute for Public Affairs also funded major parts of my doctoral studies. Lastly, I am thankful to the US Department of Education for the Foreign Language Area Studies Fellowship in French, without which I would not have been able to resuscitate my buried French nearly so well. Individuals at Cornell who have supported me in many different ways include Rose Hulslander, Barbara Armstrong, Joann Molnar, all the librarians at Olin and Mann, and many more. Finally, for family and friends who have endured long separations (geographic or otherwise), I am so thankful. My mother, father and eldest brother engaged most heartfully with my research, but even my siblings who don‘t ―get it‖ accept it as part of who I am. To Stina, Bev, Bert, Bethy, Jan, Margaret, Kathy, Al and Irene Silverman, the Farley/Richardson household, and yes to Simba and Caspar, thanks for keeping me laughing and meeting me where I am. And last but never least, to my Paul, my ―dissertation survivor.‖ Ndagukunda ichane. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Biographical Sketch v Dedication vi Acknowledgements vii Table of Contents viii List of Tables xii List of Abbreviations xiii List of Terms xiv Chapter One: Introduction to the Study 1 Chapter Two: Historical and Cultural Context 15 Pre-colonial Rwanda 16 Colonial Era (1895-1959) 22 Transition to Independence (1956-1962) 27 First Republic under Kayibanda (1962-1973) 28 Second Republic under Habyarimana (1973-1994) 30 Civil War (1990-1994) 32 The Rwandan Genocide (April-July, 1994) 38 Transitional Period 45 The ―New Rwanda‖ (2000-present) 51 Religion in Post-genocide Rwanda 57 Women‘s Organizations 65 Chapter Three: Review of the Literature 72 Transformational Learning Theory 72 Post-conflict Reconciliation Theory 115 Towards a Theory of Transformative Reconciliation 119 Chapter Four: Research Methods 121 Rationale for Qualitative Case Study Design 121 Case Selection 123 Gaining and Maintaining Access 135 Data Collection 141 Data Management in the Field 169 Data Analysis 171 Trustworthiness of Study 175 Limitations of Study 179 Chronology of Research Activities 180 Chapter Five: Within Case Findings 183 Case Report: Pilgrim Center for Reconciliation (PCR) 183 Case