Notes 1 Introduction: Negotiating Citizenship 1. Peter Stalker, Workers Without Frontiers: The Impact of Globalization on International Migration (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2000). 2. The specific details regarding research methodologies are documented in each chapter in which the data is addressed. 3. A recent Royal Commission recommended significant expansion of funding for the Canadian health care sector. While the federal Liberal gov- ernment has promised to implement these recommendations, specific com- mitments have not yet been implemented. See Building on Values: The Future of Health Care in Canada, Commissioner Roy Romanow (Ottawa: Government of Canada, 2001), Ͻhttp://publications.gc.ca/control/publicHomePage? langϭEnglish%20Ͼ. 4. See House of Commons, Canada, Bill C-11, ‘Immigration and Refugee Protection Act’, Ͻhttp://www.parl.gc.ca/37/1/parlbus/chambus/house/bills/ government/C-11/C-11_3/90141bE.html#1Ͼ. 5. Amnesty International, Brief on Bill C-11: An Act Respecting Immigration to Canada and the Granting of Refugee Protection to Persons who are Displaced, Persecuted or in Danger, March 2001, Ͻhttp://www.amnesty.ca/Refugee/ Bill_C-11.PDFϾ. 2 Negotiating Citizenship in an Era of Globalization 6. On this point, see the exposition by Jacqueline Bhabha, ‘Embodied Rights, Gender Persecution, State Sovereignty, and Refugees’, Public Culture, 9 (1996), 3–32. 7. As an example of this official ideology on citizenship, the Canadian govern- ment department charged with immigration and citizenship matters asks in a ‘Fact Sheet’ on ‘Citizenship’ the question, ‘What does it mean to be a Canadian citizen?’ In its response, Citizenship and Immigration states that Canada, and thus Canadian citizenship, are defined in terms of the follow- ing characteristics: multicultural, two official languages and equal treatment of its citizens. Citizenship and Immigration Canada, ‘Citizenship: Fact Sheet’, June 1997 Ͻhttp://www.cic.gc.ca/english/newcomer.fact_09e.htmlϾ. 8. Robert Menzies, Robert Adamoski and Dorothy Chunn, ‘Rethinking the Citizen in Canadian Social History’, in Robert Adamoski, Dorothy Chunn and Robert Menzies, eds, Contesting Canadian Citizenship (Peterborough, Ontario: Broadview Press, 2002), 13. 9. Menzies, Adamoski and Chunn, ‘Rethinking the Citizen’, 12. 10. Menzies, Adamoski and Chunn, ‘Rethinking the Citizen’, 19. Particularly noteworthy in this regard are the perilous and ‘potentially obliterative’ 169 170 Notes consequences of citizenship in settler states for indigenous peoples. Menzies, Adamoski and Chunn, ‘Rethinking the Citizen’, 31. On the consequences for indigenous peoples of settler state citizenship, see James (Sákéj) Henderson, ‘Sui Generis and Treaty Citizenship’ Citizenship Studies, 6: 4 (December 2002), 415–40. 11. Our framework addressing the articulation between migration and citizen- ship is not meant to capture all of the complexity of contemporary global migration, much of which is South to South, particularly movements of peoples displaced by war, drought and immiseration. 12. As elaborated in our analysis of the role of placement agencies in racializing the labour market for private domestic service, there are many private inter- ests that play a role in negotiating the package of citizenship rights, entitle- ments and exclusions for domestic workers. These include labour brokers in sending and receiving countries, with many working illegally. 13. Post-national theorists include Yasemin Soysal, David Jacobsen, James Holston, Arjun Appadurai and Damian Tambini. See Yasemin Nuhoglu Soysal, Limits of Citizenship: Migrants and Post-national Membership in Europe (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994) and ‘Changing Citizenship in Europe: Remarks on Post-national Membership and the National State’, in D. Cesarini and M. Fulbrook, eds, Nationality and Migration in Europe (London: Routledge, 1996); David Jacobsen, Rights Across Borders: Immigration and the Decline of Citizenship (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996); James Holston and Arjun Appadurai, ‘Cities and Citizenship’, Public Culture, 8 (1996), 187–204 and Damian Tambini, ‘Post-national Citizenship’, Ethnic and Racial Studies, 24 (2001), 195–217. David Held elaborates a model of ‘cosmopolitan democratic citizenship’. David Held, Democracy and the Global Order: From the Modern State to Cosmopolitan Governance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). 14. Hélène Pellerin and Henk Overbeek, ‘Neo-Liberal Regionalism and the Management of People’s Mobility’, in A. Bieler and A.D. Morton, eds, Social Forces in the Making of the New Europe (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2001), 137. 15. J.F. Hollifield, ‘Immigration and Republicanism in France: The Hidden Consensus’, in W.A. Cornelius, P.L. Martin and J.F. Hollifield, eds, Controlling Immigration: A Global Perspective (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994). 16. Richard Falk, Lester Edwin J. Ruiz and R.B. Walker, ‘Introduction: The International and the Challenge of Speculative Reason’, in Richard Falk, Lester Edwin J. Ruiz and R.B. Walker, eds, Reframing the International (New York: Routledge, 2002), x. 17. Joseph H. Carens, ‘Aliens and Citizens: The Case for Open Borders’, The Review of Politics, 49 (1987), 251–73. See also R. Brubaker, ‘Commentary: Are Immigration Control Efforts Really Failing?’ in W.A. Cornelius, P.L. Martin and J.F. Hollifield, eds, Controlling Immigration: A Global Perspective (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994) and J. Isbister, ‘Are immigration Controls Ethical?’ Social Justice, 23: 3 (1996), 54–67. 18. Holston and Appadurai, ‘Cities and Citizenship’, 188. 19. Holston and Appadurai, ‘Cities and Citizenship’, 189. 20. Holston and Appadurai, ‘Cities and Citizenship’, 192. 21. C. Joppke, ‘Review of Thomas Faist, David Jacobsen and Marco Martiniello’, Contemporary Sociology, 26: 1 (1997), 66. Notes 171 22. Ellen Meiksins Wood, Democracy Against Capitalism (Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 201. 23. T.H. Marshall, Citizenship and Social Class (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1950), 19. 24. Marshall, Citizenship, 18. Marshall qualified this statement by arguing that citizenship can also permit and even encourage social stratification through inequalities fostered by education and occupation. See Citizenship, 39. 25. Jost Halfmann, ‘Citizenship, Universalism, Migration and the Risks of Exclusion’, British Journal of Sociology, 49: 4 (1998), 519. 26. Marshall, Citizenship (italics added), 24. 27. Marshall argues that social services are important for providing a ‘general enrichment of the concrete substance of civilized life, a general reduction of risk and insecurity, an equalization between the more and the less fortunate at all levels …’ Citizenship, 33. 28. Helma Lutz, ‘The Limits of European-ness: Immigrant Women in Fortress Europe’, Feminist Review, 57 (Autumn 1997), 98. 29. See Ward Churchill, A Little Matter of Genocide: Holocaust and Denial in the Americas 1492 to the Present (San Francisco: City Lights Books, 1997). 30. See Daiva Stasiulis and Nira Yuval-Davis, eds, Unsettling Settler Societies: Articulations of Gender, Race, Ethnicity and Class (London: Sage, 1995). 31. Cited in Peter H. Schuk and Roger M. Smith, Citizenship Without Consent: Illegal Aliens in the American Polity (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985), 51. 32. ‘After several years of controversial debate, the Federal Republic introduced a new law on citizenship (Staatsangehörigkeitsgesetz) on 1 January 2000, which clearly marks a departure from the traditional ethno-cultural notion of citi- zenship by embracing a more inclusive concept common in many other European countries. The most important changes include the introduction of the jus soli principle in the citizenship law and the easing of the require- ments for naturalization’. Christian Lemke, ‘Citizenship Law in Germany: Traditional Concepts and Pressures to Modernize in the Context of European Integration’ Ͻwww.sociology.su.se/cgs/LemkePaper.docϾ, accessed 21 April 2003. As Lemke details, significant barriers (e.g., exclusion of dual citizen- ship, residency requirements) exist in the new citizenship legislation that would prevent the majority of foreigners of non-German origin in Germany from naturalizing. 33. Edward Broadbent, ‘Citizenship Today: Is There a Crisis?’, in Dave Broad and Wayne Antony, eds, Citizens or Consumers? Social Policy in a Market Society (Halifax: Fernwood Press, 1999), 25. 34. Anthony Giddens, Profiles and Critiques in Social Theory (London: Macmillan, 1982); M. Roche, ‘Citizenship, Social Theory and Social Change’, Theory and Society, 16 (1987), 363–99; Bryan S. Turner, ‘Outline of a Theory of Citizenship’, Sociology, 24: 2 (May 1990), 193–4; Saskia Sassen, Losing Control? Sovereignty in an Age of Globalization (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996), 38–9. 35. Saskia Sassen, Losing Control? Sovereignty in an Age of Globalization (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996), 39; Janine Brodie, ‘Citizenship and Solidarity: Reflections on the Canadian Way’ Citizenship Studies, 6: 4 (December 2002), 377–94. With reference to Canada, Jane Jenson argues that 172 Notes there has been a shift from the postwar to neo-liberal ‘citizenship regime’. A citizenship regime is defined by its ‘institutional arrangements, rules and understanding that guide and shape state policy; problem definition employed by states and citizens; and the range of claims recognized as legit- imate’. Jane Jenson, ‘Fated to Live in Interesting Times: Canada’s Changing Citizenship Regimes’,