Generating and Sustaining Combat Effectiveness: British 6th Airborne Division, 5th November 1942 – 27th August 1944 Andrew Stephen Wheale Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy to the School of Humanities in the University of Buckingham September 2017 351 Abstract Generating and Sustaining Combat Effectiveness: British 6th Airborne Division, 5th November 1942 – 27th August 1944. The highly effective leadership of General Richard Nelson Gale overcame the haphazard nature of airborne operations 1939-1945, and enabled the unproven British 6th Airborne Division to achieve its objectives during the Normandy Campaign of June – August 1944. Despite its scattered parachute landings 6th Airborne achieved its D-Day goals and held the line for three months, a task for which it was not equipped. The historiography of the Normandy campaign and British Airborne Forces has recorded this achievement, but the reasons have not been explored. This thesis examines the factors that made this possible and analyses Gale’s impact on the Division’s organisational development, preparation and training which lay behind this success. To establish the environment within which Gale had to operate, this thesis explores the shaping forces which influenced the creation of 6th Airborne Division: the constraint of inadequate resources and the absence of a clear applied airborne doctrine, inter-service politics and the influence of key war figures such as Field Marshal Sir Alan Brooke. The study pursues the links between war situation, the cost and capability of equipment and manpower, developing technology, and ongoing training through to distinguishable impact on the enemy. Two unique models form the heart of the study. The first shows the process of 1940-1945 airborne assault methods based on British cognisance of 1940-1943 operations. The second exposes the influences needed to create high value military formations based on 6th Airborne’s experience – with Gale acting as a critical accelerant. The leadership provided by Gale in the creation, development and Normandy operations of 6th Airborne Division was critical. The capability of the Division was developed through a tough regime of realistic and relevant training which also forged a robust identity. Aggressive and inventive leadership was selected and employed throughout the order of battle, while intelligent but simple operational planning was used as the base of briefing which was then cascaded throughout. The impact of surprise in the landing operation and a pragmatic approach toward co-opting the firepower of surrounding forces then maximised 6th Airborne’s combat effectiveness. It was Gale and his leadership culture which underpinned the development of the capability of the airborne soldier and the cohesion of the fighting force as a whole. A theory of regarding Gale’s leadership can therefore be established. 2 Acknowledgements This thesis has been in process for six years, and many people have helped me bring it to final fruition. In many ways this thesis is the culmination of a lifetime fascination with history and particularly military history. I had some wonderful teachers including Ken Lewis, Chris Tyler, Dr Hew Pryce and the late Professor David Loades. I have had a great deal of help from experts from numerous archives. These included Anne Wickes at the Second World War Experience Centre; IWM Air Assault, Duxford – Wendy George and Bob Hilton; Bundesarchiv Freiberg – Axel Wittenberg; the staff of the National Archive (Kew); David Byrne at the Royal Warwicks Regimental Museum; and the staff of the Bodleian Library (especially Stuart Ackland and Angie Goodgame for help with maps). Also Dunja Sharif for useful translation assistance with German records; and along the way Robert Kershaw, friends at the British Commission for Military History (BCMH) and Carl Rijmen. Veterans I had the honour to speak to - Joe Beardsley, Ron Perry, Ernie Stringer, Nick Archdale and especially the late Tony Lycett. I should also like to thank Francis McClory (the Secretary of the 7 Para Bn Veterans’ Association) and Robin Savage for helping me to get in touch with these former paratroopers. At the University of Buckingham my peer group of other students, especially Andy Winnrow and Johnny Briggs. The support of Professors John Adamson and Saul David has been most important and much appreciated. I thank my readers Matthew Ford, Nick Wight-Boycott, Judith Priestman, and my brother Jon. My supervisors Professor Lloyd Clark and Dr Matthias Ströhn, who have both been a tremendous support throughout this process, having extraordinary patience and full of insightful advice. The final acknowledgement goes to my wife Sarah, whose patience and support has allowed me to finish the project, and to whom this study is devoted. 3 Abbreviations and Glossary I. General abbreviations II. British Unit title abbreviations III. Glossary of codenames – exercises and operations I. General abbreviations 2ic - Second-in-command AA – Air Assault Museum, Duxford AA - Anti-aircraft AAEF - Allied Air Expeditionary Force ACI - Army Council Instructions ADGB - Air Defence Great Britain AFV - Armoured Fighting Vehicle AGRA - Army Group Royal Artillery AHB - The Royal Air Force Air Historical Branch AL - Airlanding (glider) AM - Air Ministry AOC - Air Officer Commanding AOER - Army Officers Emergency Reserve APDS - armour piercing discarding sabot A.Tk - Anti-tank BAM – Freiberg (Militärarchiv) Bde - Brigade BEF - British Expeditionary Force Bn – Battalion Bty - Battery CAS - Chief, Air Staff 4 CIGS - Chief, Imperial General Staff C-in-C - Commander-in-Chief Cdo – Commando Cn - Canadian CO - Commanding Officer COC - Combined Operations Command COS - Chiefs of Staff COSSAC - Chief of Staff to the Allied Supreme Commander. A key D-Day planning post before the actual Supreme Commander was appointed Coy - Company CRA - Commander, Royal Artillery CRS - Commander, Royal Signals CSM - Company Sergeant Major CT - Combat temperament Div - Division DSO - Distinguished Service Order DZ - Drop zone (parachute) Eureka/Rebecca – Two part system was made up of a ground-based transmitter beacon (Eureka) which emitted a radio signal detected by a receiver (Rebecca) mounted in either an aircraft or glider F.J.R. - Fallschirmjäger Regiment FOO - Forward Observing Officer FOsB - Forward Observers Bombardment Gee - Bomber Command navigational device invented in 1942 GHQ - General Headquarters GOC - General Officer Commanding Gp - Group 5 Gren - Grenadier GSO - General Staff Officer HQ - Headquarters HMS - His Majesty’s Ship (RN) HMSO - Her Majesty’s Stationary Office I.D. – Infantry Division (German) Ind - Independent Inf - Infantry ITC - Infantry Training Centre IWM - Imperial War Museum Ju - Junkers Lt.Col - Lieutenant-Colonel LZ - Landing zone (glider or parachute) MC – Military Cross MMG - Medium Machine Gun (Vickers in the case of 6 Airborne Div) NCO - Non-commissioned officer OKW - OberKommando der Wehrmacht, the German Armed Forces Supreme Command OODA Loop - The phrase OODA loop refers to the decision cycle of observe, orient, decide, and act, developed by military strategist and USAF Colonel John Boyd ORs - Other Ranks Para – Parachute Pdr – Pounder PIAT - Projector infantry anti-tank Pl - Platoon Port. - Portal Papers, held at Christchurch College Oxford PP - Parliamentary Papers 6 Pz. - Panzer Pz. Gren – Panzer grenadier SS-Pz.Kps - SS Panzer Corps PTC - Primary Training Centre (GSC assessment centres) RAF - Royal Air Force RM - Royal Marine RN - Royal Navy RSM - Regimental Sergeant Major RTU - Returned to Unit RUSI - The Royal United services Institute RV - Rendezvous SHAEF - Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force SMG- Submachine gun SOE - Special Operations Executive SPG - Self-propelled gun SPW - Schützenpanzerwagen (German AFV, usually a half track) SS (British) - Special Service troops – commandos SS (German) - Schütz Staffeln-Waffen SS troops SWWEC - Second World War Experience Centre TA - Territorial Army Ultra – Allied signals intelligence gathered through Bletchley Park VCAS - Vice Chief of Air Staff VCIGS - Vice Chief, Imperial General Staff VC – Victoria Cross WE - War Establishment WO - Warrant Officer 7 WO - War Office II. British Unit title abbreviations AAC - The Army Air Corps 6 AARR - 6 Airborne Armoured Reconnaissance Regiment 6 AL Bde - 6th Airlanding Brigade Border - The Border Regiment Camerons - The Queen’s Own Cameron Highlanders Coldstream - Coldstream Guards Devon - The Devonshire Regiment DCLI - The Duke of Cornwall’s Light Infantry DLI - The Durham Light Infantry Gren Gds - Grenadier Guards Green Howards – Green Howards Gds Armd Div - Guards Armoured Division GSC - General Service Corps Hamps - The Hampshire Regiment HLI - The Highland Light Infantry 13/18 H - (13th/18th) Hussars Indep Para Coy - Independent Parachute Company (pathfinders) King’s - The King’s Regiment (Liverpool) KOYLI - King’s Own Yorkshire Light Infantry KSLI - The King’s Shropshire Light Infantry KRRC - The King’s Royal Rifle Corps Leicesters - The Leicestershire Regiment MGC - Machine Gun Corps 8 Mx -The Middlesex Regiment Norfolk - The Royal Norfolk Regiment Northamptons - The Northamptonshire Regiment Oxf Bucks - The Oxford and Buckinghamshire Light infantry PWV - The South Lancashire Regiment RA - The Royal Regiment of Artillery RAC - Royal Armoured Corps RASC - Royal Army Service Corps RE - Corps of Royal Engineers REME - Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers RM - Royal Marines RUR - The Royal Ulster Rifles RWF - The Royal