TAXONOMY, ECOBIOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT OF MEALYBUG ON COTTON IN PAKISTAN BY GHULAM ABBAS M.Sc. (Hons) Agri.Entomology A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN AGRICULTURAL ENTOMOLOGY FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE FAISALABAD, PAKISTAN 2010 To : The Controller of Examinations, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad. We, the Supervisory Committee, certify that the contents and form of thesis submitted by Mr. Ghulam Abbas, Regd. No. 83-ag-700 have been found satisfactory and recommend that it be processed for evaluation by the External Examiner (s) for the award of degree. SUPERVISORY COMMITTEE: 1. CHAIRMAN : ------------------------------------------------ (Dr. Muhammad Jalal Arif) 2. MEMBER : ----------------------------------------------- (Dr. Muhammad Ashfaq (TI)) 3. MEMBER : ------------------------------------------------- (Dr. Muhammad Aslam Khan) 4. SPECIAL MEMBER : ------------------------------------------------- (Dr. Shafqat Saeed) ii DEDICATED To My father, Mahr Sharif Muhammad (May his soul rest in heaven) Who had to face the bitter realities of the life in his early childhood. He was unborn when his father died. He was only nine months old when his mother also passed away. As an orphan he was brought up by his grandfather Maher Isa (Jesus). He was an illiterate and self-made person but he educated all his six sons in spite of the hardships of his life as a poor farmer. He is no longer in this world to be congratulated on the success of his son but his greatness is still alive and smiling on the fruit of his ambitions and efforts. iii CONTENTS CHAPTER TITLE PAGE NO. 1 INTRODUCTION 1 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 7 3 MATERIALS AND METHODS 25 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 42 5 SUMMARY 125 REFERENCES 129 APPENDIX 140 iv TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................... v LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ ix LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................... xii LIST OF APPENDICES ................................................................................................. xiv LIST OF ANNEXURES .................................................................................................. xv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ......................................................................................... xvi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................... .xvii Abstract……………………………………………………………………………….xviii Chapter No. 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background……………………………………………………………………………1 1.1.1 Agriculture in Pakistan ............................................................................. 1 1.1.2 The Importance of ...................................................................................... 1 1.1.3 The cotton belt of Pakistan ........................................................................ 3 1.2 The Problem ...................................................................................................... 4 1.3 Objectives of This Work .................................................................................. 6 Chapter No.2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE .......................................................................................... 7 2.1 The Taxonomic Literature on Mealybugs ......................................................... 7 2.1.1 Mealybug Classification .......................................................................... 7 2.1.2 The Identity of Pest Mealybugs in Pakistan ........................................... 8 2.1.3 The Mealybug Genus Phenacoccus ......................................................... 9 2.2 The Economic Importance of Mealybugs ....................................................... 10 2.2.1 Pest Behavior of Phenacoccus Species Other than CMB ...................... 12 2.2.2 The Economic Importance and Spread of Phenacoccus solenopsis ...... 13 2.2.3 The Global Distribution of P. solenopsis ................................................ 15 2.3 The Biology and Ecology of P. solenopsis ..................................................... 17 2.3.1 The Biology of P. solenopsis in Pakistan .............................................. 17 2.3.2 Host Plants of P. solenopsis ................................................................... 18 2.3.3 Insects Associated with Mealybugs ....................................................... 19 2.3.4 Natural Enemies of P. solenopsis ........................................................... 19 2.4 The Management of Pest Mealybugs on Cotton in Pakistan ........................... 20 2.4.1 Principles of Pest Management .............................................................. 20 v 2.4.2 Chemical Control of P. solenopsis ......................................................... 21 2.4.3 Pesticide Hazards and the Loss of Biodiversity ..................................... 22 2.4.4 Biological Control of Mealybugs ........................................................... 22 Chapter No.3 MATERIALS AND METHODS .................................................................................... 25 3.1 Methods Used in Taxonomic Studies ............................................................. 25 3.1.1 Preparation of Mealybugs for Authoritative Identification ................... 25 Table of contents (continued) 3.1.1.1 Collection and Labeling ............................................................... 26 3.1.1.2 Preservation ................................................................................... 27 3.1.1.3 Maceration .................................................................................... 27 3.1.1.4 Staining ......................................................................................... 27 3.1.1.5 Dehydration ................................................................................... 28 3.1.1.6 De-waxing and Clearing ............................................................... 28 3.1.1.7 Slide-mounting Adult Female Mealybugs .................................... 29 3.1.1.8 Drying Canada Balsam Slide Mounts ........................................... 30 3.1.2 Observation and Description .................................................................. 30 3.1.3 Identification .......................................................................................... 30 3.2 Methods Used in Ecobiology Studies ............................................................. 30 3.2.1 Life Span and Life Cycle ....................................................................... 31 3.2.2 Sex Ratio Study .................................................................................. 31 3.2.3 Reproduction and Developmental Stages .......................................... 32 3.2.4 Fecundity............................................................................................. 33 3.2.5 Effect of Host-Plant Species on Fecundity ......................................... 34 3.2.6 Alternate Host Plants ......................................................................... 35 3.2.7 Distribution and Dispersal ................................................................. 37 3.2.8 Overwintering and Carry Over of the Pest ........................................ 37 3.2.9 Recording Natural Enemies of CMB ................................................... 38 3.3 Methods Used in CMB Management Studies ............................................... 38 3.3.1 Host-Plant Resistance to CMB ........................................................... 38 3.3.2 The Impact of Narrow-Spectrum Pesticides and IGRs .......................... 39 3.3.3 The Optimum Volume of Sprayable Material ................................... 40 3.3.4 The Effects of Additives in Sprayable Material ................................ 40 Chapter No.4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: 4.1 TAXONOMY ……………………………………………………………………...42 4.1.1 The Identification Problem ........................................................................ 42 4.1.2. Diagnosis of the Family Pseudococcidae ............................................ 43 4.1.3 Records of Phenacoccus Species on Malvaceae ................................. 43 4.1.4 Morphological Description of the Cotton Mealybug in Pakistan ........ 44 4.1.5 Morphological Variation Between Samples of P. solenopsis .............. 45 vi 4.1.6 Biological Differences Between P. gossypiphilus and P. solenopsis .. 47 Taxonomic Discussion ....................................................................................... 47 4.2 ECOBIOLOGY.......................................................................................................... 49 4.2.1 Biology ........................................................................................................ 49 4.2.1.1 The Life Cycle of CMB ...................................................................... 49 4.2.1.2 The Reproduction of CMB ................................................................. 50 4.2.1.3 The Crawler and Wax Secretions ....................................................... 51 4.2.1.4 Mortality of CMB .................................................................................. 52 4.2.1.5 The Instar Durations of CMB ............................................................. 53 4.2.1.6 The Life Span of CMB ......................................................................