The London School of Economics and Political Science A Constructivist Analysis of Religion’s Role in Foreign Policy: The cases of Israel, Iran and Saudi Arabia under the leaderships of Menachem Begin, Ayatollah Khomeini and Fahd bin Abdulaziz Magdalena Charlotte Delgado A thesis submitted to the Department of International Relations of the London School of Economics and Political Science for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy London, November 2015 DECLARATION I certify that the thesis I have presented for examination for the PhD degree of the London School of Economics and Political Science is solely my own work. The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. Quotation from it is permitted, provided that full acknowledgement is made. This thesis may not be reproduced without the prior written consent of the author. I warrant that this authorization does not, to the best of my belief, infringe the rights of any third party. The final word count of this thesis, including titles, footnotes and in-text citations, is 78,012 words. 2 ABSTRACT The 1648 landmark signing of the Westphalian Treaties which famously implemented the principle of cuius regio, eius religio has, for International Relations (IR), meant that relatively little attention has been paid to religion as an influential force in international relations. A “turn to religion” amongst a growing body of IR scholars, fueled by post-Cold War studies and empirical events, has sought to change this by placing religion within the study of IR. With a view of adding to this debate, this thesis examines the role of religion in Israeli, Iranian and Saudi Arabian foreign policy during the respective leaderships of Menachem Begin (1977-84), Ayatollah Khomeini (1979-89) and Fahd bin Abdulaziz Al Saud (1975-1995). It does so by drawing on extensive primary material, including private and public discourse of the leaders in question, as well as existing literature from, primarily, Middle East Studies and Religious Studies. The thesis argues, and shows with reference to its empirical findings, that the leaders’ religious beliefs shaped their respective world-views and, by extension, their foreign policy doctrines and foreign policy outcomes. Moreover, it shows that religion played an important role in legitimizing the leaders themselves as well as their respective foreign policies. In this context, the thesis furthermore shows that, for the foreign policy leaders, religion assumed distinct meanings which were seemingly shaped according the context in which they operated. Importantly, the thesis argues, this does not uncritically support the long-standing assumption in IR scholarship that religion is epiphenomal, and/or a tool of instrumentalisation. With reference to Constructivist literature and a dynamic definition of religion developed for this project, the thesis rather explains that the malleable nature of religion can and does interact with variables like material security to shape, and sometimes drive, conceptualisations of national interest and foreign policy outcomes. The project concludes that religion’s role is multi-faceted, and, more to it, that the foreign policies of Khomeini’s Iran, Begin’s Israel and Fahd’s Saudi Arabia cannot be fully understood without it. 3 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS My most sincere gratitude goes to my supervisor, Dr. Katerina Dalacoura, who has guided me through this project in so many ways. Her unmatched analytical rigor, attention to detail and intellectual input have helped and inspired me greatly. As if that were not enough, her endless flexibility, kindness and consideration have been a continuous source of support, and meant more to me than I can possibly express here. I am truly grateful to have been guided through this experience by someone who is every bit the mentor a Doctorate student could wish for. I would also like to thank the ever-helpful individuals that have commented on my work, or helped me in some other way over the past four years. First and foremost, staff and students at the Department of International Relations at the LSE, especially Martina Langer and Gabrielle To, for providing a friendly “home.” I also thank Prof. Chris Alden and Dr. James Strong for their constructive feedback during my presentations in the FPA workshop, as well as Prof. Fawaz Gerges and participants of the Middle East workshop, especially Irena Kalhousova for her thorough feedback on my Israel chapter. I am also grateful to Father Michael Lang of the Brompton Oratory, Arnon Lammfrom of the Israeli State Archives, as well as the extraordinarily hospitable individuals I met during my fieldwork in Iran, for taking the time to discuss parts my thesis with me. During this journey, wonderful relationships have formed, shaping my work and myself. A big thank you goes to the PhD cohort of 2011, above all, to Melissa Koluksuz and Neal Suleimanova, for their constant friendship, but also to Emmanuelle Blanc, Julia Muravska, Alex Dueben, Philipp Lamprecht, Martin Niemetz, John Hemmings and Borja Guijarro-Usobiaga, without whom the past four years would not have comprised quite the fun, ridiculous, stimulating, traumatic and altogether extraordinarily fulfilling experience, that they have. In year one, I proclaimed in the Garrick that “social relations are key to intellectual advancement,” admittedly as a justification for our countless coffee-breaks; now, I say it with honest certainty and would, by the way, add “happiness” to the end of that statement. I am sincerely grateful for our memories. May our friendships long outlast the PhD! Finally, a handful of special people from outside the LSE have been part and parcel of this journey. To my parents and extended family, especially my grandmother: thank you for your support and motivation. Above all, I thank my mother, Didde Munck, without whose emotional and financial support this “chapter” of my life would not have been written: your unconditional love has been my rock throughout the past four years, and throughout my life. Thank you to my best friend, Ashaa Khunti, for being a true friend. It seems like yesterday that we submitted our undergraduate dissertations together; seven years and priceless memories later, we are still going strong! To my partner who has endured a fair share of dinner debates about Theology, the Middle East and International Relations (with capital I and R!), and whose emotional and intellectual support has left its own special mark on this work: thank you for your kindness, patience and, above all, love. I would like to dedicate this thesis to my grandfather, Antonio Delgado Álvarez, whose memory has comforted and inspired me throughout the writing of this thesis, and continues to do so in its aftermath. 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1.0 Introduction and rationale p. 6-13 1.1 Researcher question, argument and contribution p. 14-20 1.2 Methodology, case selection and case design p. 21-30 1.3 Theoretical framework p. 30-42 1.4 Structure of thesis p. 43-46 CHAPTER 2. THINKING ABOUT RELIGION: KEY DEFINITION AND CONCEPTS 2.0 Introduction p. 47-50 2.1 Defining religion p. 50-60 2.2 Surveying the essentialist-functionalist definitional spectrum p. 61-68 2.3 Conclusion p. 68-69 CHAPTER 3. SETTING THE SCENE: THE OPERATIONAL ENVIRONMENT OF BEGIN, KHOMEINI & FAHD 3.0 Introduction p. 70-74 3.1 The Jewish State of Israel p. 74-86 3.1.1 The socio-political landscape of Israel p. 74-81 3.1.2 Menachem Begin’s decision making environment p. 82-86 3.2 The Islamic State of Iran p. 87-95 3.2.1 The socio-political landscape of Israel p. 87-91 3.2.2 Ayatollah Khomeini’s decision making environment p. 92-95 3.3 The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia p. 96-106 3.3.1 The socio-political landscape of Saudi Arabia p. 96-100 3.32 Fahd bin Abdulaziz‘ decision making environment p. 100-105 3.4 Conclusion p. 105-106 CHAPTER 4. RELIGION AND FOREIGN POLICY IN ISRAEL UNDER BEGIN (1977-84) 4.0 Introduction p. 107-118 4.1 Menachem Begin’s worldview p. 118-119 4.2 Menachem Begin’s Foreign Policy Doctrine p. 119-130 4.3 Menachem Begin and the Camp David Accords p. 130-139 4.4 Menachem Begin and Operation Peace for Galilee p. 139-141 CHAPTER 5. RELIGION AND FOREIGN POLICY IN IRAN UNDER KHOMEINI 5.0 Introduction p. 142-143 5.1 Ayatollah Khomeini’s worldview p. 144-153 5.2 Ayatollah Khomeini’s Foreign Policy Doctrine p. 154-159 5.3 Ayatollah Khomeini and the Iran-Iraq war p. 159-170 5.4 Ayatollah Khomeini and the Salman Rushdie Affair p. 170-175 5.5 Conclusion p. 176-177 CHAPTER 6. RELIGION AND FOREIGN POLICY IN SAUDI ARABIA UNDER FAHD (1982-95) 6.0 Introduction p. 178-180 6.1 Fahd Bin Abdulaziz Al Saud’s worldview p. 180-191 6.2 Fahd Bin Abdulaziz Al Saud’s Foreign Policy Doctrine p. 191-192 6.3 Fahd Bin Abdulaziz Al Saud, the Camp David Accord and the “Palestinian issue” p. 193-199 6.4 Fahd Bin Abdulaziz Al Saud, Operation Desert Storm and the Gulf War p. 200-205 6.5 Conclusion p. 205-208 CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION 7.0 Discussion of research findings p. 209-213 7.1 Pointers and avenues for future research p. 214-217 BIBLIOGRAPHY p. 218-237 5 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION “God has proven to be alive and well beyond all question” - Karen Armstrong on 9/11, 2001 attacks.1 1.0 Introduction and rationale Armstrong’s opening quote echoes what in many of the social sciences has long been a topic of debate, but in International Relations (IR) only emerged as such in the post-9/11, 2001 era. Although IR scholars have discussed religion within the broader context of Constructivism since the early 1990s, they have done so indirectly, subsuming