access to history China 1839-1997 MICHAEL LYNCH �o��B��� '-1 LEARN MORE DYNAMIC LEARNING China 1839-1997 is available as a Student eTextbook. Student eTextbooks are downloadable versions of the printed textbooks that teachers can assign to students. Students can: • Download and view them on any device or browser • Add, edit and synchronise notes across two devices • Access their personal copy on the move Find out more and sign up for a free trial -visit: www.hoddereducation.eo.uk/dynamiclearning access to history China 1839-1997 MICHAEL LYNCH access to history China 1839-1997 MICHAEL LYNCH HODDER i7 EDUCATION AN HACHETTE UK COMPANY In memory of Brian Peter Lynch (1933-2015) Acknowledgements: are listed on page 322. Every effort has been made to trace all copyright holders, but if any have been inadvertently overlooked the Publishers will be pleased to make the necessary arrangements at the first opportunity. 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Visit our website at www.hoddereducation.co.uk ©Michael Lynch First published in 2016 by Hodder Education An Hachette UK Company Carmelite House, 50 Victoria Embankment London EC4Y ODZ Impression number 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Year 2020 2019 2018 2017 2016 All rights reserved. Apart from any use permitted under UK copyright law, no part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or held within any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher or under licence from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited. Further details of such licences (for reprographic reproduction) may be obtained from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited, Saffron House, 6-10 Kirby Street, London EON 8TS. Cover photo© Photos 12/Aiamy Produced, illustrated and typeset in Palatino LT Std by Gray Publishing, Tunbridge Wells Printed and bound by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon CRO 4Y Y A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library ISBN 978 1471839184 Contents CHAPTER 1 China 1839-60 1 1 The nature of Manchu rule 1 2 The Opium Wars 8 3 Rebellions and the Qing response to them 17 CHAPTER 2 The opening of China to foreigners 1860-1901 22 1 Missionaries in China 22 2 The self-strengthening movement 26 3 The Sino-Japanese War 1894-5 32 4 The Boxer Uprising 1898-1900 34 CHAPTER 3 Defeat and revolution 1901-25 47 1 The downfall of the Manchu dynasty 1901-11 48 2 Key debate 55 3 The rule of Yuan Shikai 1912-16 56 4 Warlord China 61 5 The 4 May Movement 1919-27 63 6 The Nationalists (GMD) under Sun Yatsen 1912-25 67 7 The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) 69 CHAPTER 4 Nationalists and Communists 1924-45 73 1 The GMD-CCP United Front 1924-7 73 2 The Communists under Mao Zedong 81 3 The Guomindang under JiangJieshi (Chiang Kaishek) 89 CHAPTER 5 The Japanese threat and Communist takeover 1931-49 101 1 The Japanese occupation of China 1931-7 102 2 The Sino-Japanese War 1937-41 106 3 The Sino-Japanese War 1941-5 116 4 The Communist takeover 1945-9 121 CHAPTER 6 China and the wider world 1949-76 129 1 The PRC's international position and regional issues 130 2 The PRC's relations with the USA 131 3 The PRC's relations with the Soviet Union 136 4 The impact of the Cultural Revolution on external affairs 149 CHAPTER 7 Government, economy and society under Mao after 1949 154 1 Government of China under Mao after 1949 154 2 Key debate 161 3 The economy: industry 163 4 The economy: agriculture 172 5 Social change under Mao 178 v Contents CHAPTERS The Cultural Revolution 1966-76 187 1 Origins: the power struggle 1962- 6 188 2 The course of the Cultural Revolution 195 3 The Red Guards 202 4 The PLA and the last stage of the Cultural Revolution 208 5 The effects of the Cultural Revolution 215 6 Key debate 223 CHAPTER 9 Deng Xiaoping 228 1 The power struggle after Mao's death 228 2 Economic reform: Deng's Four Modernisations 234 3 Political repression and the pro-democracy movement 1979-89 241 e:MQd;lialChina and the wider world 1978-97 252 1 China as a regional power in Asia 252 2 Reconciliation with old enemies 257 3 The PRC and Hong Kong 260 4 China's membership of international organisations 264 CHAPTER 11 Concluding survey 271 1 The government and rulers of China 1839-1997 271 2 The economy and the growth of industry 1839-1997 273 3 Society in China 1839-1997 276 4 China and the wider world 1839-1997 278 5 Ideologies and individuals behind economic growth 1860-1997 280 Study guide 285 Glossary of Chinese names 305 Glossary of terms 306 Further reading 314 Index 317 Dedication Keith Randell (1943-2002) The Access to History series was conceived and developed by Keith, who created a series to 'cater for students as they are, not as we might wish them to be'. He leaves a living legacy of a series that for over 20 years has provided a trusted, stimulating and well-loved accompaniment to post-16 study. Our aim with these new editions is to continue to offer students the best possible support for their studies. vi China 1839-60 In 1839, China was an antique empire ruled by the Manchu dynasty. Politically and socially conservative, it considered itself superior to all other nations. Yet within 30 years it had been forced by stronger Western powers to surrender much of its independence and key parts of its territory to them. These developments and the shock they caused to the Chinese are the subject of this chapter, which studies the material under the following headings: * The nature of Manchu rule * The Opium Wars * Rebellions and the Qing response to them Key dates 2200sc Beginning of China's recorded 1841 Convention of Ch'uan-pi history 1842 Treaty of Nanjing 551-479sc Life of Confucius 1850 Beginning of Taiping Rebellion 1644 Beginning of Manchu rule of China 1794 McCartney's mission to China 1856-60 Second Opium War 1839-42 First Opium War 1860 Treaty of Tianjin The nature of Manchu rule �I What were the distinctive characteristics of Manchu China? L----------------------------------------------------------· � KEYTERMS Recorded history in China dates from around 2200Bc and is customarily measured by reference to the fifteen imperial dynasties which ruled from Imperial dynasties Rule by that time until the early twentieth century AD. In 1839, the reigning emperor heredrtary emperors belonging was a member of the Manchu house, the last dynasty to rule China before the to a particular house. overthrow of the imperial system in the revolution of 1911 (see page 48). Manchu Also known as the Qing, the last imperial dynasty The Manchu (Qing) dynasty (I 644-191 I). There was an oddity about the position of the Manchus as emperors of China. As their name indicates, they came from Manchuria, a large north-eastern 1 China 1839-1997 state that originally lay outside China. Strictly speaking, therefore, the rule of the Manchu was the imposition of foreign authority over China. It is true that the Manchu came to absorb so many aspects of Chinese culture that to the outside observer it seemed that the different peoples were indistinguishable. Nevertheless, the majority Han Chinese never lost their sense of being subject to alien rulers, which explains why when Chinese nationalism began to develop in the nineteenth century it often expressed itself in the form of anti-Manchu agitation. An interesting example of this was the symbolic cutting off by the Chinese of their pigtails, the traditional Manchu hairstyle which had been imposed upon them. Imperial rule The emperor was the principal ruler and magistrate, entitled to complete obedience from his subjects and government officials. The imperial title was hereditary and claimed an absolute authority. The right to hold such authority l � KEY FIGURE was based on a fundamental feature of Chinese political and social thinking: Confucianism, a set of ideas drawn from the teaching of the philosopher Confucius (551-479ac) Confucius, who lived from 551 to 479sc. The Latinised name of the Chinese scholar Kong Fuzi, Confucianism whose ideas influenced China Confucianism is sometimes loosely defined as a religion, but this is misleading. for thousands of years and Confucius was not a religious thinker. It was this world and the people within continue to shape Chinese it that mattered. His basic principle was that unless people lived an ordered life, thinking today. social harmony would be impossible to achieve and chaos and conflict would follow. To achieve harmony and order it was necessary that society should be � KEVTERM structured in accordance with four essential rules.