Analysing Alternate Reality Games based on game design theory to propose a conceptual framework By Koos (J.W.) de Beer Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the degree MIS (Multimedia) Department of Information Science Faculty of Engineering, Built Environment and Information Technology University of Pretoria Supervisor: TJD Bothma Date of submission: August 2015 © University of Pretoria Declaration I declare that the Master’s dissertation, which I hereby submit for the degree MIS (Multimedia) at the University of Pretoria, is my own work and has not been previously submitted by me for a degree at another university. ___________________ _____________________ Koos (JW) de Beer Date i © University of Pretoria Analysing Alternate Reality Games based on game design theory to propose a conceptual framework By Koos (J.W.) de Beer Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the degree MIS (Multimedia) Department of Information Science Faculty of Engineering, Built Environment and Information Technology University of Pretoria Supervisor: TJD Bothma Date of submission: August 2015 Abstract The aim of this research is to develop a conceptual framework for alternate reality games based on game design theory. Alternate reality games or ARGs are a unique form of game that enables people to collaboratively play a game that is not a game in the context of the real world. To understand ARGs one needs to understand what differentiates them from other types of games as well as what makes them games. The research investigates existing literature of alternate reality games as well literature in the field of game studies to develop a set of characteristics for alternate reality games based on game design theory. Case studies are done on three different ARGs and summaries for the games are created. The phenomena in the summaries are placed into categories and subcategories. The categories and subcategories are developed by analysing the game summaries using constant comparative analysis. Using the categories, subcategories and the relationship between them, diagrams are created for each of the studied ARGs. A detailed analysis of each game is done and a summary diagram is created for each game. The summary diagrams are then combined to create a generalizable diagram for ARGs. The combination of the theoretical framework developed during the literature study together with the generalizable diagram from the analysis of the three games are then combined to create a conceptual framework. The conceptual framework creates a deeper understanding of ARGs and the various phenomena found within them by building on game design theory found in the field of game studies. The conceptual framework can aid in the creation of ARGs as well as enable the further analysis of these games. Keywords Game studies, game design theory, alternate reality games, case studies, conceptual framework, theoretical framework, narrative, game actions, community, collaborative play, comparative analysis ii © University of Pretoria Acknowledgement I would like to express my sincerest thanks to my family, especially my wife - Linda de Beer, for their support and encouragement. Thank you to my own personal librarians, Lourina de Beer (my mother) and Erica van der Westhuizen for helping me search through all the content and for proof reading my work. To the professors in the Department of Information Science at the University of Pretoria, thank you for helping me think through this and for keeping it all in perspective (Prof. Ina Fourie, Prof. Fanie de Beer and Prof. Theo Bothma). The same goes to the almost professors, Dr. Marlene Holmner and Dr. Cecilia Penzhorn. Finally, I would like to thank my friend and mentor, Nelis Franken. It is thanks to you that I was able to embark on this journey and learn the things I did. If it wasn’t for our “what about alternate reality games” discussion, I would not be where I am today. iii © University of Pretoria Contents Declaration .............................................................................................................................................. i Abstract .................................................................................................................................................. ii Acknowledgement ............................................................................................................................... iii List of figures and tables ...................................................................................................................... x List of tables ........................................................................................................................................ x List of figures....................................................................................................................................... x 1 Chapter 1 - Introduction ............................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Background to the problem ..................................................................................................... 3 1.3 Statement of the problem ........................................................................................................ 4 1.4 Purpose of the study ............................................................................................................... 4 1.5 Significance of the study ......................................................................................................... 5 1.6 Primary research questions and sub-questions ...................................................................... 5 1.6.1 Primary research question .............................................................................................. 5 1.6.2 Sub-questions ................................................................................................................. 5 1.7 Research design ..................................................................................................................... 6 1.7.1 Literature study ................................................................................................................ 6 1.7.2 Case studies .................................................................................................................... 7 1.8 Overview of the literature ........................................................................................................ 7 1.8.1 Defining games ............................................................................................................... 7 1.8.2 Defining Alternate Reality Games ................................................................................... 7 1.8.3 The nature of an ARG and the three components .......................................................... 8 1.9 Assumptions, limitations and scope ........................................................................................ 8 1.9.1 Assumptions made during this study .............................................................................. 8 1.9.2 Limitations of the study ................................................................................................... 8 1.9.3 Scope .............................................................................................................................. 9 1.10 Summary ................................................................................................................................. 9 2 Chapter 2 – Literature review .................................................................................................... 10 2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 10 iv © University of Pretoria 2.2 Defining games ..................................................................................................................... 10 2.2.1 Defining games ............................................................................................................. 10 2.2.2 Components of games .................................................................................................. 15 2.2.3 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 21 2.3 Defining Alternate Reality Games ......................................................................................... 22 2.3.1 Defining Alternate Reality Games ................................................................................. 22 2.3.2 Types of Alternate Reality Games ................................................................................ 32 2.4 Pervasive Games and Alternate Reality Games ................................................................... 34 2.4.1 Pervasive computing ..................................................................................................... 34 2.4.2 Pervasive games ........................................................................................................... 36 2.4.3 Relating Alternate Reality Games to Pervasive Games ............................................... 38 2.5 Other genres of games ......................................................................................................... 40 2.5.1 Serious games .............................................................................................................