Developing Philosophical Foundations of System Dynamics with Buddhist Philosophy Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements of Master of Philosophy in System Dynamics (Universitetet i Bergen), Master of Science in System Dynamics (Universidade NOVA de Lisboa) & Master of Science in Business Administration (Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen) By Alexander Dorodeiko Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Henk Akkermans Tilburg University, The Netherlands Second Reader: Prof. Erling Moxnes Universitetet i Bergen, Norway August 2019 Abstract This study explores conceptual similarities between System Dynamics and Buddhist philosophy to investigate how the latter can contribute to the development of philosophical foundations of System Dynamics. First, it identifies and reflects on the main concepts underlying the philosophy of System Dynamics. Second, it presents the fundamental concepts of Buddhist philosophy. Third, it analyses how the main concepts of System Dynamics are represented and interpreted in Buddhist philosophy. In doing so, the study grounds itself in the existing findings about conceptual similarities between systems domains and Buddhism and makes a comprehensive up-to-date review of the major publications on the topic. It also presents novel insights not yet discussed in the literature. For example, the discovered consilience of the epistemological stance of System Dynamics and Buddhist philosophy. Finally, the study makes suggestions on how the identified consonant concepts of Buddhist philosophy can be integrated into System Dynamics to improve its theory and modelling practice. 1 Table of Contents Table of Figures……………..………..………..………..………..………..………..………………...5 List of Tables…………..………..………..………..………..………..………..………..……………..6 1. Introduction…………….………..………..………..………..………..………..…………………..7 2. Methods……..………..………..………..………..………..………..………..……………………11 2.1. Literature Search and Selection………..………..………..………..………..……………….12 2.2. Literature Review………..………..………..………..………..………..………..…………..14 2.3. Summary and Synthesis of the Reviewed Literature………..………..………..…………….14 2.4. Research Ethics………..………..………..………..………..………..………..…………….15 3. Buddhist Philosophy…………..………..………..………..………..………..………..………….16 3.1. Buddhism as Philosophy………..………..………..………..………..………..…………….16 3.2. Historical Background………..………..………..………..………..………..………..……..17 3.2.1. Aryans and Vedas………..………..………..………..………..………..……………..17 3.2.2. Ascetics and Yoga………..………..………..………..………..………..……………..18 3.2.3. The Historical Buddha………..………..………..………..………..………..………..19 3.3. The Main Concepts of Buddhist philosophy………..………..………..………..……………20 3.3.1. Samsara and Nirvana………..………..………..………..………..………..…………20 3.3.2. Karma………..………..………..………..………..………..………..………..……...21 3.3.3. The Middle Way and the Noble Eightfold Path………..………..………..……………22 3.3.4. The Four Noble Truths………..………..………..………..………..………..………..24 3.3.5. Dependent Origination and Buddhist View on Causality………..………..…………..26 3.3.6. No-self, Impermanence and Suffering………..………..………..………..…………...27 3.3.7. Abhidharma: Theory of dharmas………..………..………..………..………..………27 3.3.8. Emptiness………..………..………..………..………..………..………..……………28 3.3.9. Meditation and Inseparability of Knowledge and Knower………..………..…………29 3.3.10. Buddhist Ethics………..………..………..………..………..………..……………...30 2 4. The Main Concepts of System Dynamics…………..………..………..………..………………...32 4.1. Characteristics of “Normal” Human Thinking………..………..………..………..…………32 4.2. System………..………..………..………..………..………..………..………..…………….33 4.3. Feedback and Feedback Loop………..………..………..………..………..………………...35 4.4. Systems Structure………..………..………..………..………..………..………..…………..36 4.5. Stock and Flow………..………..………..………..………..………..………..……………..37 4.6. Systems Behaviour (Dynamics)………………..……………………………………………38 4.7. Idea of a Model and Idealism………..………..………..………..………..………..………...38 4.8. Systems Properties………..………..………..………..………..………..…………………..40 4.9. Systems Thinking………..………..………..………..………..………..………..…………..40 4.10. Systems Ethics………..………..………..………..………..………..………..……………41 4.11. System Dynamics Theory of Decision-Making Process and Goal-Oriented Behaviour……43 5. Comparison of System Dynamics and Buddhist Philosophy…………..………..………………45 5.1. “Dependent Origination 1”: Mutual Causality (Feedback) and Systems View………………45 5.1.1. Causality………..………..………..………..………..………..………..…………….45 5.1.2. Mutual Causality (Feedback), System and Systems Thinking………..………..………46 5.1.3. Endogenous Explanation (View)………..………..………..………..………..……….47 5.1.4. Process Thinking, Boundaries and Dynamics………..………..………..………..…...47 5.2. “Dependent Origination 2”: Mental Models and Relativity of Knowledge………………….48 5.2.1. Idealism and Dependent Origination………..………..………..………..……………48 5.2.2. Mental Model as Conditioned Knowledge………..………..………..………..……….49 5.2.3. Mental Model and Dependent Origination as Pedagogical Tools………..…………...50 5.3. Integration of Buddhist Dependent Origination and Reflective Practices into SD…………...50 5.4. Mental Models: Enhance or Suspend?………..………..………..………..………..………...52 5.5. “The Promise of System Dynamics” or How Much Religion is There in SD?………..……...55 5.6. Non-Dualism in Buddhist Philosophy and System Dynamics………..………..…………….57 5.6.1. Why is Non-Dualism Characteristic for System Dynamics?………..………..………..57 3 5.6.2. Relevance of the Buddhist Middle Way for System Dynamics………..………..………57 5.7. Middle Way as Negative Feedback… Karma as a Stock………..………..………..………...60 5.8. Time in System Dynamics and Buddhist Philosophy………..………..………..………..…..60 5.9. Systems and Buddhist Ethics………..………..………..………..………..………..………...62 5.9.1. The “Interrelatedness Ethics”………..………..………..………..………..………….62 5.9.2. Decentralization of Self………..………..………..………..………..………………...63 5.9.3. Personal Responsibility………..………..………..………..………..………………...64 5.9.4. Non-Dualism and Systems Ethics………..………..………..………..………..………64 5.9.5. Motivation as Criterion for Evaluation of Human Affairs………..…………………...64 5.10. Unrepresented Concepts………..………..………..………..………..………..…………...65 6. Conclusion and Discussion………..………..………..………..………..………..………………..67 6.1. Key Findings and Contributions………..………..………..………..………..………………67 6.1.1. Reflection on the Foundations of System Dynamics………..………..………..………67 6.1.2. “Systems Domains and Buddhism” Literature Review………..………..…………….67 6.1.3. Conceptual Similarities between System Dynamics and Buddhist Philosophy………..67 6.1.4. Discussion of the Main Insights………..………..………..………..………..………...69 6.2. Limitations and Recommendations for Future Research………..………..………..………...71 References………..………..………..………..………..………..………..………..…………………73 Appendix A………..………..………..………..………..………..………..………..………………..77 Appendix B………..………..………..………..………..………..………..………..………………..88 Appendix C………..………..………..………..………..………..………..………..………..……..119 Appendix D………..………..………..………..………..………..………..………..………..……..121 Appendix E………..………..………..………..………..………..………..………..………..……..123 4 Table of Figures Figure 1. Two Sides of System Dynamics………..………..………..………..………..………………8 Figure 2. Basic Balancing Feedback Loop………..………..………..………..………..…………….44 Figure 3. Components of a Decision Rule………..………..………..………..………..………..……44 Figure 4. Mutual Causality and Systems View………..………..………..………..………..……….123 Figure 5. Mental Models and Relativity of Knowledge………..………..………..………..……….123 Figure 6. Soteriological Narratives………..………..………..………..………..………..………….124 Figure 7. Non-Dualism………..………..………..………..………..………..………..………..…...124 Figure 8. The “Interrelatedness Ethics”………..………..………..………..………..………..……..124 5 List of Tables Table 1. Details of Literature Search on Topic of Systems Domains and Buddhism Comparison…….78 Table 2. Summaries of Reviewed Publications on Topic of Comparison of Systems Domains and Buddhism……..………..………..………..………..………..……..………..………..……..………..80 Table 3. The Main Concepts of System Dynamics…..………..………..……..………………………88 Table 4. Initial Categorization and List of the Main Concepts of System Dynamics…..…………….119 Table 5. Final Categorization and List of the Main Concepts of System Dynamics…..………..…….121 6 1. Introduction An increasing number of scholars argue that there exist similarities between the ideas of systems domains1 and Buddhism. Macy (1991) states that both Buddhism and General Systems Theory (GST) adopt a holistic perspective and consider causality as intrinsically mutual, with feedback. In her other publication, Macy (1979) suggests that since Buddhist ethics are grounded in its views on causality which are consonant with the ones of systems theory, Buddhist ethics can become the basis for the further development of systems ethics. Varela et al. (2016) suggest that modern science should integrate contemplative practices and the approach for studying cognition from Buddhism. Senge et al. (2008) integrate ideas from systems thinking and Buddhism, arguing that while the former makes a significant leap by departing from the common reductionistic approach to science, it still lacks ethical and spiritual dimensions as well as practical methods for their application which can be provided by Buddhism based on its similarity with systems thinking. Shen & Midgley (2007) explore “the similarities between [Humanistic] Buddhist philosophy and various systems perspectives” (p.168) to “spark debate” (p.167) about the topic in the systems sciences community. Generally, it is suggested that there is a need for further investigation of similarities between systems domains and Buddhism as such can be beneficial for both theoretical development of systems domains as well as their practical application (Bajracharya, 2010; Kim, 2010; Macy,