PREHISTORIC CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS ON BONAIRE, NETHERLANDS ANTILLES Jay B. Haviser INTRODUCTION The objective of this paper is to present a general overview of Amerindian cultural developments on Bonaire, based on extensive archaeological surveys and excavations conducted by the author in 1987-1988. In this paper, the method for presenting such an overview is by examining two types of data relating to the prehistoric period. First, there will be an identification and comparison of island-wide and internal-site evidence of artifact deposits, with a focus on the composition and distribution of variable classes of artifacts. Secondly, a site catchment analysis is used to observe data about Amerindian cultural geography and settlement patterns on Bonaire. These data are then compared with similar analyses conducted on Curaçao, to make interpretations about the variable adaptive strategies employeed by the Amerindians on Bonaire. A more detailed examination of Amerindian cultural history on Bonaire can be found in a book called "The First Bonaireans" by the author, to be out next year (Haviser 1991 ). Physical Background of Bonaire Bonaire, and its sister island of Klein Bonaire, have 288 sq. Km. of exposed land, and are located about 80 Km. north of Venezuela and 45 Km. east of Curaçao, at 12 5' N. latitude and 68 25' W. longitude (see Figure 1). The island itself is about 40 Km. long and 5-11 Km. wide in a roughly boomerang shape, composed of mostly Eocene to Quaternary limestone formations and also Cretaceous to Tertiary Washikemba formations ofbasalts, cherts and diabases (Beets and MacGillavry 1977; de Buisonje 1974) (see Figure 2). With an average annual rainfall of 340-680mm, average annual temperature of 27 C. and year mean relative humidity of 75%, Bonaire is primarily a semi-desert island with xerophytic vegetation, similar to the adjacent areas of N.W. Venezuela, Goaira, and the other Southern Caribbean Region islands east to Margarita. Paleo-environmental evidence from the region suggests that these semi-desert conditions have been relatively stable for about the last 3000 years (van der Hammen and Correal 1978; Shreve-Brinkman 1978). With such dry conditions, the available fauna on the island was sparse, composed mostly of birds, iguanas, rodents, land crabs, and marine molluscs, fish and turtles (Haviser 1991 ). In Figures 3 to 6, can be seen the island-wide distribution of several important resources for the prehistoric peoples who inhabited Bonaire, such as fresh-water sources, soils suitable for manioc, soils suitable for maize, and existant/proposed mangrove stands. These figures will be refered to later in this paper. Prehistoric Cultural Background for Bonaire The character of Bonaire and Curaçao as true oceanic islands within a visible proximity to each other, has clearly been a factor in the similarity of cultural developments in prehistory. On Curaçao, we note the earliest archaeological materials at about 4500 years ago, with this Archaic Age evidence continuing up until about 3500 years ago, followed by an apparent abandonment of Curaçao until the arrival of Ceramic Age peoples at about 1450 years ago (Haviser 1987). 237 238 PREHISTORIC CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS ON BONAIRE The first arrival of Archaic Age peoples on Bonaire, at Lagun 3400 years ago (about 1370 B.C.), seems to coencide with the abandonment of Curaçao. From archaeological studies on both Bonaire and Curaçao, we can suggest that these Archaic Age peoples had a probable lifeway as small, semi-nomadic, familistic groups of less than 100 persons, with a hunter-gatherer-fishing subsistence, focused on marine resources and fauna associated with mangrove stands (Haviser 1989). By about 1450 years ago (about 470 A.D.), a small stable population of Archaic Age peoples was established on Bonaire. At this time, there is evidence of encroachment onto the island by Ceramic Age peoples. From linguistic and artifactual evidence we can trace the ancient ancestral origin of these earliest Ceramic Age peoples to the Apure basin Western Llanos and the middle Orinoco river area. These maize and manioccultivators seem to have migrated from the Apure river, up the Portuguesa river, then down the Tocuyo-Aroa-Yaracuy river basins to the Caribbean coast, then out onto the coastal islands of Los Roques, Las Aves, Bonaire and Curaçao (Oliver 1989; Haviser 1991). Noted here are the distribution of prehistoric rock painting sites in Venezuela (de Valencia and Sujo Volsky 1987), adding supplementary evidence for middle Orinoco origins for the ancestors of the Bonairean Ceramic Age peoples (see Figure 7). Also noted in Figure 8 is a Stammbaum Model of selected Maipuran languages suggested by Oliver (1989), indicating linguistic connections to the middle Orinoco. Over the subsequent several hundred years, these Ceramic Age Bonaireans adapted to the island, assimilated the Archaic Age peoples into their lifeways, and colonized Bonaire, particularly in the areas of Wanapa, around Lac, and probably at Put Bronswinkel. There was clearly a close relationship between Bonaire and Curaçao during the Ceramic Age period, as noted by artifactual evidence such as distinctive ceramic painting styles On Bonaire the Ceramic Age population probably never exceeded about 800-1200 people, who lived in sedentary communities with pole-construction huts, located in the vicinity of their various manioc, maize, and possibly agave, agricultural fields. At about 1300 years ago (about 800 A.D.) there was a major movement of Amerindians spreading westward across northwestern Venezuela, covering the area now known as Falcon. These were the coastal Caquetio, with a diagnostic ceramic decoration style called Dabajuroid, complexed socio-political organization, and large populations. By about 800-1000 A.D., they had dominated the Venezuelan coast adjacent to Bonaire, and were thus strategicly located to establish trading networks and cultural contacts with the Ceramic Age peoples of Bonaire. From the artifactual evidence on Bonaire, it seems that by about 1200 A.D. these coastal Caquetio were the primary cultural influence on the island, as noted at the Amboina and Fontein sites. However, the unique earlier Ceramic Age influences on Bonaire and Curaçao were not completely eliminated, as noted by continuation of the distinctive ceramic painting styles, and 17th century historical documents which refer to these islands as inhabited by a separate clan within the Caquetio (Haviser 1987). In Figure 9, is a chronological chart exhibiting the position of Bonaire in the regional prehistory. Artifact Deposits on Bonaire During the archaeological survey of Boanire, by the author in 1987-88, a total of 82 Amerindian sites were recorded, either as new discoveries or earlier reported and reconfirmed site locations. Of HÀVISER 239 the 82 sites known for the island, 58.6% (48) are Ceramic Age, 15.8% (13) are Archaic Age, 9.8% (8) are exclusively rock painting sites, and 15.8% (13) are unidentified as to cultural affiliation. Using a model previously employed on Curaçao (Haviser 1987), these sites were further identified as to probable occupation intensity and site function(s) as ephemeral, temporary or permanent settlements (see Figure 10). The artifact deposits used in this study were excavated at seven different locations on Bonaire. Two sites were excavated which represent the Archaic Age (Lagun and Gotomeer), two sites were excavated representing Ceramic Age permanent settlements (Wanapa and Amboina), and three sites representing Ceramic Age temporary settlements were also excavated (Den Bon, North Lac and Sorobon) (see Figure 11). From an island-wide perspective we can clearly see the variability of individual artifact deposits directly relates to the identified site function categories (see Figures 12 to 14). This is demonstrated by the Ceramic Age permanent sites having a more equal proportional ratio of different artifact classes, than is noted at either the Ceramic Age temporary or Archaic Age sites, where shell material is the dominate artifact class evident. Other interesting observations to be made from Figures 12 to 14 are the great lack of vertebrate faunal material noted at the Archaic Age sites, and the presence of exotic materials (re. tar) at Öoth Ceramic Age permanent and temporary sites. Overall, the various sites representing the same site function category have very similar proportional ratios of artifact classes within their deposits, there being one exception with the large difference of faunal bone evidence at the two Ceramic Age permanent sites. If we observe a more detailed analysis of intra-site artifact deposit variation, within the Wanapa site, then an explanation for the faunal bone difference can be suggested. In Figure 15, we can see the Wanapa settlement area, where at least four activity areas were noted from the artifact deposits. These being a living area with a possible house structure (Area B), a shell and coral working area (Area C), a burial area (Burial), and a refuse midden area (Area A). In Figure 16, we can-see the proportional ratio of the artifact classes present in each of these activity areas at the Wanapasite. One of the most striking results noted in this figure is that the living area (Area B) has by far a much higher ratio of faunal bone remains than any other area at the site. If we refer back to the difference in faunal bone evidence between Wanapa and Amboina it could be inferred that the sample from Amboina was more heavily representative of a living area at that site, thus the greater presence of faunal bone. This pattern of artifact class proportional variability within an individual permanent site, is very much less evident within the deposits of individual temporary or ephemeral sites, and thus special caution should be taken when sampling permanent sites for comparitive analysis. Site Catchment Analysis on Bonaire To study the utilization of the environment by the Archaic and Ceramic Age peoples on Bonaire, a site catchment analysis was employed using a point pattern model developed by Haviser (1987) for Curaçao.