RAYMOND ARTHUR DART: HIS LIFE AND WORK Frances Wheelhouse A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of History University of Sydney March 1998 'Al!SJ9A!Un J94lO Aue Ol paluasaJd uaaq lOU se4 pue )jJOM UMO AW S! S!S94l S!4lle4llSane I ABSTRACT To date no definitive work has been produced on the Australian scientist Raymond Arthur Dart. This thesis aims at correcting such a lack. Born in Queensland in 1893, he was most famous for his discovery in South Africa in 1924 of the missing link between ape and man, Australopithecus africanus, (the Taung skull) which changed world opinions on the evolution of the human species. Arguments are illustrated of the huge difficulties he had to overcome in establishing his claims and in so doing sustaining his findings against the opposition of the British scientific establishment members of the day who, scathingly condemned his work and influenced other scientists throughout the world to do likewise. Arguments are put forward concerning the prejudices of the day of entrenched ideas of human evolution and also of class bigotry which existed and against Colonials expressing opposing views to their British peers. Points are established as to how Raymond Dart coped over decades with this problem and why he was so firm in his convictions of his assessment of this Taung skull. It is argued his strong character and intellect were of enormous importance as were factors in the moulding of his character of experiencing in Australia in his youth, tough farm life, governed by devoted religious parents and schooling wherein also both the work and religious ethic played a powerful role. It is shown, how the religious aspect diminished from 1911 when he studied Science and came into contact with Darwin's work at the University of Queensland. Points are made as to how the work ethic continued to flourish under the influence of his mentors there and in his medical studies at the University of Sydney, with his army service and the continuing strong influence of Sir Grafton Elliot Smith at the University College, London. It is shown that, cast into the daunting role at the age of twenty-nine to the Chair of Anatomy at the newly established Medical School in Johannesburg, by his sheer vitality and drive, his inspired vision, laden with new concepts, many bitterly opposed, he lifted the University of the Witwatersrand to world prominence, not only by his major discovery of Austra/opithecus africanus in 1924 but by the quality of the students he produced to become leaders in their fields. Points are made of his additional wide-ranging researches in medicine, anthropology, human migrations and culture. The importance is shown of Dr Broom's discovery at Sterkfontein, South Africa of adult australopithecines, thus confirming Dart's initial discovery, as is Dart's own discovery of more of the species at Makapansgat and his assessment of their culture, some aspects of which became highly disputed. In the light of later findings by others proving similar cultural lifestyle affinities of man's near relatives, argument is made for the reassessment of much of Dart's disputed work in regard to tool use and cultural behaviour of the australopithecines. ABBREVIATIONS AAAS Australian Association for the Advancement of Science. ACT Australian Capital Territory. Afr. Stud. African Studies. AAMC Australian Army Medical Corps. AIF Australian Imperial Forces. Amer. Anthrop. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. Amer.J.phys.Anthrop.n.s. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. new series. Assoc. Sci. Tech. Socs. S. A. Associated Scientific and Technical Societies of South Africa. Anthrop.Anz. Anthropologischer Anzeiger. ANL Australian National Library. ANZAAS Australian and New Zealand Association for the Advancement of Science. AUQ Archives University of Queensland. Bantu Stud. Bantu Studies. BAAS British Association for the Advancement of Science. Brit. J.phys. Med. British Journal of Physical Medicine. BBMNH(G). Bulletin of the British Museum of Natural History (Geology). Clin. Med. Surg. Clinical Medicine and Surgery. Curr.Anthrop. Current Anthropology. ed. edited. Folia anat. Jap. Folia Anatomica Japonica. FRCS Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons. FRS Fellow of the Royal Society. Ill us. Illustrated. 11/us.Lond.News. Illustrated London News. ISMA Institute for the Study of Man in Africa. lnternat.geol. Cong. International Geological Congress. IGS. Ipswich Grammar School. IGSM Ipswich Grammar School Magazine. IGSMCI Ipswich Grammar School Magazine Centenary Issue. J.anat. Journal of Anatomy. J.comp.Neurol. Journal of Comparative Neurology. J.dent.Ass.S.Afr. Journal of the Dental Association of South Africa. J.Hum.Evol. Journal of Human Evolution. J.med Ass.S.Afr. Journal of the Medical Association of South Africa. J. nerv. ment. Dis. Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases. J.Roy.anthrop.lnst. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute. J. S.Afr. vet.med.Ass. Journal of the South African Veterinary Medical Association. Med.J.S.Afr. Medical Journal of South Africa. Med.Proc. Medical Proceedings. Mus.Man.Sci. The Museum of Man and Science. NSW New South Wales Proc. Pan-Afr. Gong. Prehist. Proceedings of the Pan African Congress in Prehistory. Proc.zoo/. Soc. Lond. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London. Qld. Queensland. Rhod.min.J. Rhodesian Mining Journal. RPAH. Royal Prince Alfred Hospital. S.A.M.B. South African Museums Association Bulletin. S.Afr.archaeoi.Bull. South African Archaeological Bulletin. S.Afr.Assn.Adv.Sci. South African Association for the Advancement of Science. S.Afr.geog.J. South African Geographical Journal. S.Afr.J.med.Sci. South African Journal of Medical Sciences. S.Afr.J.occupat. Therap. South African Journal of Occupational Therapy. S.Afr. J. Physiotherap. South African Journal of Physiotherapy. S.Af.J.Sci. South African Journal of Science. S.Afr.mech.Engr. South African Mechanical Engineer. S.Afr.med.J. South African Medical Journal. S.Afr.Riys.Harb. Mag. South African Railways and Harbours Magazine. S.Afr.Sci. South African Science. Sci.S.Afr. Scientific South Africa. Trans. Rhod. Sci. Ass. Transactions of the Rhodesia Science Association. Trans.Roy. Soc. S.Afr. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa. Transv.educat.News. Transvaal Education News. Transv.Mus.Mem. Transvaal Museum Memoirs. U.S. Med. Soc. University of Sydney Medical Society. Z. Morph.Anthrop. Zeitschrift fOr Morphologie und Anthropologie. Zoo/. Soc. Lond. Symp. Zoological Society of London Symposia. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS One of the most pleasant factors in the compilation of this thesis has been the co-operation which I have received and I take this opportunity to express my thanks to all those who helped me both in either large or in small capacity. The Medical School, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa: To Emeritus Professor Phillip V. Tobias, his secretarial and technical staff, Christel Eckert (now Mrs Allison), R. Klomfass, H. Henning Alun R Hughes, John Bunting and John Shavalabala. Staff of the Medical Library. The Bernard Price Institute for Palaeontological Research, Johannesburg, South Africa: Dr. S. H. Haughton, A. R. I. Cruickshank, Professor M. A. Raath, Dr. A. S. Brink, Dr. James Kitching, Dr Judith Maguire, Brian Maguire, Adrian Boshier, Dr Peter Beaumont, Harry Thackwray, Patrick Nagel, Joan van Gogh, Mrs Edwards, the Librarian and Mrs Holloway, secretarial staff, the laboratory staff and at Sterkfontein caves, Elias Makere. Others in South Africa: Professor Trevor Rubidge Trevor-Jones of the Dental Faculty, University of the Witwatersrand; Professor H. J. Deacon, University of Stellenbosch, Cape Province; Dr C. K. (Bob) Brain, Director, Transvaal Museum, Pretoria and Heidi Fourie, Palaeontology Section; Miss Anna Smith, Librarian and her staff of Johannesburg City Library; Colonel and Mrs H. E. Winder; Mr and Mrs Gordon Peppercorn of the Makapansgat Valley and Zava, caretaker of the Research Huts. Internationally: The Institutes for the Achievement of Human Potential, Philadelphia, USA, Drs Glen Doman and Carl Delacarto, Greta Erdtmann and Lee Pattinson; Mrs and Mrs Leighton Wilkie of Chicago. Professors Bernard Campbell, Brunetto Chiarelli, Y. Coppens, Ralph von Koenigswald, W. W. Howells, Clark Howell, J. Huizinga, J. Kiernaux, Ralph Holloway, E. Maquel, T. Jacob, P. Kirby, E. L. Simmons, C. Arambourg and Paul Rennie. Archives: Australian Archives, Canberra; University of Sydney (Ken Smith and Tim Robertson), for items not previously sited; Joseph Shellshear, Medical School, University of Sydney (Ann Macintosh and Dr Denise Donlon), for items not previously sited; likewise at St Andrew's College, (Professor lan Jack); University of Sydney Medical Society; Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney; the University of the Witwatersrand, (Mrs. D. Arnold), Barlow Archives, both of Johannesburg; University College, London; University of Queensland; Ipswich Grammar School. The Fisher Library staff and Rare Books Section of the University of Sydney; Ipswich Grammar School, Queensland, Igor Lapa, Headmaster; K. E. Neale, Jim Leigh and C. McKee; Medical School, Queensland University, Brisbane, Professors John Pearn (AM) and Laurie Geffen; Medical School, Sydney University, Professors. N. W. G. Macintosh, Maurice Arnold, also Ken Parsons. Others who aided, Helen Frizell and Dr Scott Orr, Pro-vice Chancellor John Atherton Young, also several photographers; a special thanks to those who permitted extracts of their work