Calhoun: The NPS Institutional Archive Theses and Dissertations Thesis Collection 1995-12 Mine warfare: an old threat presents new challenges for Nato's post-Cold War navies Lluy, Paul A. Monterey, California. Naval Postgraduate School http://hdl.handle.net/10945/31337 NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL MONTEREY, CALIFORNIA THESIS MINE WARFARE: AN OLD THREAT PRESENTS NEW CHALLENGES FOR NATO'S POST-COLD WAR NAVIES by Paul A. Lluy w I! December, 1995 O Thesis Advisor: Jan S. Breemer Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited. mm 052 REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE Form Approved OMB No. 0704-0188 Public reporting burden for this collection of information is estimated to average 1 hour per response, including the time for reviewing instruction, searching existing data sources, gathering and maintaining the data needed, and completing and reviewing the collection of information. Send comments regarding this burden estimate or any other aspect of this collection of information, including suggestions for reducing this burden, to Washington Headquarters Services, Directorate for Information Operations and Reports, 1215 Jefferson Davis Highway, Suite 1204, Arlington, VA 22202-4302, and to the Office of Management and Budget, Paperwork Reduction Project (0704-0188) Washington DC 20503. 1. AGENCY USE ONLY (Leave blank) REPORT DATE REPORT TYPE AND DATES COVERED December 1995 Master's Thesis MINE WARFARE: AN OLD THREAT PRESENTS NEW CHALLENGES FOR FUNDING NUMBERS NATO'S POST-COLD WAR NAVIES 6. AUTHOR(S) Paul A. Lluy 7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) 8. PERFORMING Naval Postgraduate School ORGANIZATION Monterey CA 93943-5000 REPORT NUMBER 9. SPONSORING/MONITORING AGENCY NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) 10. SPONSORING/MONITORING AGENCY REPORT NUMBER 11. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES The views expressed in this thesis are those of the author and do not reflect the official policy or position of the Department of Defense or the U.S. Government. 12a. DISTREUTION/AVAILABILITY STATEMENT 12b. DISTRIBUTION CODE Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited. 13. ABSTRACT (maximum 200 words) This thesis analyzes the possible implications to global maritime interests posed by the growing international proliferation of advanced sea mines, and examines the role of NATO's mine countermeasures (MCM) forces in countering this threat in the post-Cold War security environment. It is argued that, given the Iraqi mining success during the Gulf War, the current global proliferation of sophisticated sea mines, and deficiencies in the international laws which govern their use, mine warfare will present a growing threat to vulnerable Western nations into the next century. Consequently, NATO's mine countermeasure forces will have a prominent role in future Alliance or UN-mandated out-of-area naval contingencies, ranging from counter-terrorism operations to major regional conflicts, and will be called upon to provide a credible MCM capability to protect Alliance and coalition naval forces, secure vital sea lines of communication (SLOCs), and ensure unimpeded maritime freedom of the seas prescribed under international law. NATO's capability to meet these challenges will depend largely on its ability to reorient its focus toward the requirements necessary to train and maintain a first-rate MCM rapid deployment force. As a leader within NATO, the United States Navy must assume the lead in forging multinational transatlantic MCM forces capable of dealing with any global mining contingency. 14. SUBJECT TERMS Mine Warfare (MIW), Mine Countermeasures (MCM), North Atlantic Treaty 15. NUMBER OF Organization (NATO), Expeditionary Warfare, Littoral Warfare, Weapons Proliferation PAGES 211 16. PRICE CODE 17. SECURITY CLASSIFICA- 18. SECURITY CLASSIFI- 19. SECURITY CLASSIFICA- 20. LIMITATION OF TION OF REPORT CATION OF THIS PAGE TION OF ABSTRACT ABSTRACT Unclassified Unclassified Unclassified UL NSN 7540-01-280-5500 Standard Form 298 (Rev. 2-89) Prescribed by ANSI Std. 239-18 298-102 11 Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited. MINE WARFARE: AN OLD THREAT PRESENTS NEW CHALLENGES FOR NATO'S POST-COLD WAR NAVIES Paul A. Lluy Lieutenant Commander, United States Navy B.S., United States Naval Academy, 1984 Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS IN NATIONAL SECURITY AFFAIRS from the NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL December 1995 Author: Approved by: 'Daniel Moran, Second Reader Frank M. Teti, Chairman Department of National Security Affairs in IV ABSTRACT This thesis analyzes the possible threats to global maritime interests posed by the growing international proliferation of advanced sea mines, and examines the role of NATO's mine countermeasures (MCM) forces in countering these threats in the post-Cold War security environment. It is argued that, given the Iraqi mining success during the Gulf War, the current global proliferation of sophisticated sea mines, and deficiencies in the international laws which govern their use, mine warfare will present a growing threat to vulnerable Western nations into the next century. Consequently, NATO's mine countermeasure forces will have a prominent role in future Alliance or UN-mandated out-of- area naval contingencies, ranging from counter-terrorism operations to major regional conflicts, and will be called upon to provide a credible MCM capability to protect Alliance and coalition naval forces, secure vital sea lines of communication (SLOCs), and ensure unimpeded maritime freedom of the seas prescribed under international law. NATO's capability to meet these challenges will depend largely on its ability to reorient its focus toward the requirements necessary to train and maintain a first-rate MCM rapid deployment force. As a leader within NATO, the United States Navy must assume the lead in forging multinational transatlantic MCM forces capable of dealing with any global mining contingency. VI TABLE OF CONTENTS I. INTRODUCTION 1 A. PURPOSE 1 B. BACKGROUND 1 C. THESIS OBJECTIVE 5 D. RESEARCH LITERATURE AND METHODOLOGY 5 E. ORGANIZATION OF THESIS 6 II. MINE WARFARE OVERVIEW 9 A. INTRODUCTION 9 B. THE ART OF MINE WARFARE 10 C. TYPES OF NAVAL MINES 14 D. TYPES OF MINING OPERATIONS 19 E. TYPES OF MINE COUNTERMEASURES (MCM) OPERATIONS .... 20 F. PROACTIVE (OFFENSIVE) MCM: NOT A PANACEA 23 G. SUMMARY 26 III. MINE WARFARE: DIVERGENT EUROPEAN AND U.S. INTEREST 29 A. INTRODUCTION 29 B. BACKGROUND 30 C. WESTERN EUROPEAN MCM: SOME GENERAL COMPARISONS .. 31 Vll D. HISTORICAL COMPARISONS 33 E. STRATEGIC VULNERABILITY 45 F. ECONOMIC VULNERABILITY 51 G. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN TRANSATLANTIC COOPERATION . 54 H. SUMMARY 58 IV. MINE WARFARE AND INTERNATIONAL LAW 61 A. INTRODUCTION 61 B. BACKGROUND: CUSTOMARY AND INTERNATIONAL LAW 62 C. INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS RELATING TO MINE WARFARE 63 D. 1907 HAGUE CONVENTION NO. VIII 66 E. THE 1982 LAW OF THE SEA CONVENTION 73 F. U.S. AND NATO POLICY CONCERNING THE USE OF SEA MINES . 78 G. MINE WARFARE IMPLICATIONS OF INTERNATIONAL LAW 80 H. SUMMARY 81 V. MINE WARFARE PROLIFERATION: AN EMERGING GLOBAL THREAT . 83 A. INTRODUCTION 83 B. PROLIFERATION AND MINE WARFARE 84 C. THE GLOBAL MINE THREAT 87 D. THE MARKET 93 E. THE SUBMARINE MENACE 105 viii F. IMPLICATIONS OF GLOBAL MINE WARFARE PROLIFERATION . 110 G. SUMMARY 114 VI. THE ROLE OF MCM IN NATO'S POST-COLD WAR NAVIES 117 A. INTRODUCTION 117 B. NATO'S RELEVANCE IN THE POST-COLD WAR 118 C. THE EVOLVING EXPEDITIONARY ROLE OF EUROPE'S NAVIES . 122 D. THE CURRENT STATE OF WESTERN EUROPEAN MCM 126 E. MCM IN NATO'S NEW STRATEGIC CONCEPT 132 F. LITTORAL WARFARE 154 G. REGIONAL THREAT CASE STUDY: SOUTHEAST ASIA 157 H. MCM IN EUROPE'S EMERGING DEFENSE IDENTITY 163 I. SUMMARY 170 VII. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 173 A. INTRODUCTION 173 B. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS 174 C. SPECIFIC FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS 176 D. RECOMMENDATIONS 179 BIBLIOGRAPHY 183 INITIAL DISTRIBUTION LIST 193 IX EXECUTIVE SUMMARY A. INTRODUCTION The collapse of the Warsaw Pact Treaty Organization and the demise of the Soviet Union have resulted in a fundamental shift in the defense perspectives of NATO away from large scale conventional and nuclear warfare toward participation in crisis management operations, low intensity regional conflicts, and peace-keeping/enforcing missions. This new international security setting will likely mean an even greater role for NATO's naval forces in out-of-area contingency operations in littoral waters. In such an environment, the sea mine will always pose a potential threat as an anonymous and cost-effective means of neutralizing a superior naval force, or as an instrument of international terror. B. THESIS STATEMENT This thesis analyzes the possible threats to global maritime interests posed by the growing international proliferation of advanced sea mines, and examines the role of NATO's mine countermeasures (MCM) forces in countering these threats in the post-Cold War security environment. It is argued that, given the Iraqi mining success during the Gulf War, the current global proliferation of sophisticated sea mines, and deficiencies in the international laws which govern their use, mine warfare will present a growing threat to vulnerable Western nations into the next century. Consequently, NATO's mine countermeasure forces will have a prominent role in future Alliance or UN-mandated out-of- area naval contingencies, ranging from counter-terrorism operations to major regional conflicts, and will be called upon to provide a credible MCM capability to protect Alliance XI and coalition naval forces, secure vital sea lines