‘Talking to the Desert’ Discourse, Power, and Libyan Geopolitics 1969-2009 BY KHALED GULAM This thesis is submitted to the Cardiff School of Journalism, Media & Cultural Studies, Cardiff University, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy. 2010 UMI Number: U584431 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publishing UMI U584431 Published by ProQuest LLC 2013. Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 DECLARATION This work has not previously been accepted in substance for any degree and is not concurrently submitted in candidature for any degree. Signed ... .-p.... (Candidate) Date 17/05/2010 STATEMENT 1 This thesis is being submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of PhD.________ Signed .... r . ... .7 7 ^ ^ .. (Candidate) Date 17/05/2010 STATEMENT 2 This thesis is the result of my own independent work/investigation, except where otherwise stated. Other sources are acknowledged by explicit references. Signed ... .-7=rrf^^?T7^.. (Candidate) Date 17/05/2010 STATEMENT 3 I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available for photocopying and for inter-library loan, and for the title and summary to be made available to outside organisations. Signed .. (Candidate) Date 17/05/2010 STATEMENT 4: PREVIOUSLY APPROVED BAR ON ACCESS I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available for photocopying and for inter-library loans after expiry of a bar on access previously approved by the Graduate Development Committee. Signed . (Candidate) Date 17/05/2010 Abstract This research examines Libyan geopolitical discourse over the 40 years from 1969 to 2009 — that is, the period following the revolution which brought Muammar Abu Minyar Al-Qaddafi to the leadership of that country. It asks how and why Libyan geopolitical discourse changed over this period. To answer this question, it reviews the scholarly literature bearing on Qaddafi and Libya’s international and strategic relations; it analyses 188 speeches delivered by Qaddafi; it examines interviews, books and documents by him; and it draws on interviews conducted by the author with Libyan political commentators. It hypothesises that, in response to threats to Libyan sovereignty and survival, Qaddafi repeatedly shifted Libyan geopolitical discourse in a way that amounted to a tactically polyvalent responsive-defensive strategy. In sustaining the hypothesis, it makes several findings. It methodically establishes that Qaddafi was the progenitor of Libyan geopolitical discourse. It reveals the ideational content of Qaddafi’s discourse in terms of its lexicology, placing him within the Arab nationalist lexicon derived from Nasserism. It demonstrates that Qaddafi used, mainly, three verbal discursive strategies in constructing and reconstructing Libyan geopolitical discourse — lexical reiteration, presupposition and indexicals — plus visual imagery and symbolism. It argues a three-stage periodisation of Libyan geopolitical discourse: pan-Arab, pan-African and Libya as a nation-for- itself. These changes at geopolitical level, however, never challenged Qaddafi’s and Libya’s commitment to their Arab identity. It finds that discursive change came as a response to threats to Libyan sovereignty or security and was intended to defend Libya against, or mitigate, these threats. It reveals subtleties in his view of Libyan security as a means to unite Arab and African worlds, rather than preferring one over the other. That is to say, Qaddafi’s move towards Africa implied a rejection of Arab governments but not of the Arab world, of which he continued to consider himself and Libya a part. And, finally it finds that, although discourses appeared sometimes to be mutually or internally contradictory, they were intended to serve the same strategy: namely to protect Libyan sovereignty and security. That is to say, discursive change served a tactically polyvalent responsive-defensive strategy. m Acknowledgements This work would not have been possible without the guidance, encouragement, and criticism of a group of special individuals, and the services of a number of people. Special thanks go to my supervisor, Dr. Howard Barrell for his open mindedness, tolerance and suggestions which allowed me to formulate my arguments. Without him I would not be writing this acknowledgment. I am indebted to Dr. Paul Mason for enabling me to pursue my research at Cardiff School of Journalism, Media and Cultural Studies. He has also been a great supporter on the programme. My thanks also go to The World Centre for the Studies and Researches of the Green Book (Tripoli) for providing me with Muammar Al-Qaddafi’s speeches from 1969 to 2008. I am grateful to Dr. Ahamed al-Atrash and Mr Khalil Matar who provided me with support and information during my PhD programme. I would also like to thank all the Western scholars — particularly Dirk Vandewalle and Ronald Bruce St John — who have found Libya interesting enough to write about. I would like to thank my wife Dr. Asma, my sons Obai and Awab, my father, Abulghasem, and my whole family for their love, encouragement and inspiration. IV Contents Declaration .......................................................................................................................ii Abstract............................................................................................................................ iii Acknowledgements .........................................................................................................iv Figures..............................................................................................................................vii Images.............................................................................................................................. viii Abbreviations ................................................................................................................. ix Glossary of Arabic Terms..............................................................................................x Chronology.....................................................................................................................xii Chapter One: Introduction ............................................................................................ 1 Chapter Two: Literature and Historical Review ....................................................... 5 Introduction .........................................................................................................5 Geopolitics........................................................................................................... 7 Western Theories of Nationalism ..................................................................... 12 The Origins and Development of Arab Nationalism ...................................... 21 Qaddafi and Arab Nationalism .........................................................................44 Chapter Three: Research Methodology......................................................................61 Introduction ........................................................................................................61 Sampling............................................................................................................. 65 Content Analysis ............................................................................................... 66 Discourse Analysis ............................................................................................ 75 Applied Methods of Discourse Analysis ......................................................... 79 Lexical Analysis............................................................................................... 80 Foucauldian Discourse Analysis ...................................................................... 84 Visual Analysis ................................................................................................. 87 Interviews ........................................................................................................... 93 Research Strategy.............................................................................................. 97 v Chapter Four: Content Analysis ............................................................................100 Introduction .................................................................................................100 Frequency of references to Arab and African Geopolitical Concerns 103 Words and Phrases Associated with Arab Geopolitical Concern ...............109 Words and Phrases Associated with African Geopolitical Concern ..........113 Discussion .................................................................................................... 116 Chapter Five: Discursive Strategy: Verbal............................................................. 118 Introduction ..................................................................................................118 Qaddafi’s Pan-Arab Period ........................................................................