BEHAVIORAL AND BRAIN SCIENCES (2000) 23, 727–780 Printed in the United States of America Précis of Simple heuristics that make us smart Peter M. Todd Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, 14195 Berlin, Germany [email protected] www.mpib-berlin.mpg.de/abc Gerd Gigerenzer Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, 14195 Berlin, Germany [email protected] www.mpib-berlin.mpg.de/abc Abstract: How can anyone be rational in a world where knowledge is limited, time is pressing, and deep thought is often an unattain- able luxury? Traditional models of unbounded rationality and optimization in cognitive science, economics, and animal behavior have tended to view decision-makers as possessing supernatural powers of reason, limitless knowledge, and endless time. But understanding decisions in the real world requires a more psychologically plausible notion of bounded rationality. In Simple heuristics that make us smart (Gigerenzer et al. 1999), we explore fast and frugal heuristics – simple rules in the mind’s adaptive toolbox for making decisions with realistic mental resources. These heuristics can enable both living organisms and artificial systems to make smart choices quickly and with a minimum of information by exploiting the way that information is structured in particular environments. In this précis, we show how simple building blocks that control information search, stop search, and make decisions can be put together to form classes of heuristics, including: ignorance-based and one-reason decision making for choice, elimination models for categorization, and satisficing heuristics for sequential search. These simple heuristics perform comparably to more complex algorithms, particularly when generaliz- ing to new data – that is, simplicity leads to robustness. We present evidence regarding when people use simple heuristics and describe the challenges to be addressed by this research program. Keywords: adaptive toolbox; bounded rationality; decision making; elimination models; environment structure; heuristics; ignorance- based reasoning; limited information search; robustness; satisficing, simplicity 1. Introduction as high or low risk. Thus, the tree requires the doctor to an- swer a maximum of three yes/no questions to reach a deci- A man is rushed to a hospital in the throes of a heart attack. sion rather than to measure and consider all of the several The doctor needs to decide whether the victim should be usual predictors, letting her proceed to life-saving treat- treated as a low risk or a high risk patient. He is at high risk ment all the sooner. if his life is truly threatened, and should receive the most This decision strategy is simple in several respects. First, expensive and detailed care. Although this decision can save it ignores the great majority of possible measured predic- or cost a life, the doctor must decide using only the avail- able cues, each of which is, at best, merely an uncertain pre- Peter M. Todd is a senior research scientist at the Max dictor of the patient’s risk level. Common sense dictates Planck Institute for Human Development in Berlin, that the best way to make the decision is to look at the re- Germany, and co-founder of the Center for Adaptive sults of each of the many measurements that are taken Behavior and Cognition (ABC). He has published nu- when a heart attack patient is admitted, rank them accord- merous papers and books on modeling behavior, music, ing to their importance, and combine them somehow into and evolution, and is associate editor of the journals a final conclusion, preferably using some fancy statistical Adaptive Behavior and Animal Cognition. software package. Consider in contrast the simple decision tree in Figure 1, Gerd Gigerenzer is Director of the Center for Adap- which was designed by Breiman et al. (1993) to classify tive Behavior and Cognition (ABC) at the Max Planck heart attack patients according to risk using only a maxi- Institute for Human Development in Berlin, Germany, and a former Professor of Psychology at the University mum of three variables. If a patient has had a systolic blood of Chicago and other institutions. He has won numer- pressure of less than 91, he is immediately classified as high ous prizes, including the AAAS Prize for Behavioral Sci- risk – no further information is needed. If not, then the de- ence Research in 1991; his latest book is Adaptive cision is left to the second cue, age. If the patient is under Thinking: Rationality in the Real World (Oxford Uni- 62.5 years old, he is classified as low risk; if he is older, then versity Press, forthcoming). one more cue (sinus tachycardia) is needed to classify him © 2000 Cambridge University Press 0140-525X/00 $12.50 727 Todd & Gigerenzer: Simple heuristics scribe the behavior of an unaided human mind or could be Is the minimum systolic blood pressure . built into an emergency-room machine. (Note that while over the initial 24 hour period 91? decision trees are generally easy to use, their construction in the first place can be computationally expensive. The no simple heuristics presented in the book can also avoid this yes costly construction phase.) In this précis we describe the framework of our explo- ration of fast and frugal heuristics and summarize some of . Is age 62.5? high risk the results that have been obtained so far by the ABC Re- search Group. We begin by placing the study of simple heuristics within the context of bounded rationality, distinct yes no from traditional views of unbounded rationality or opti- mization under constraints. We then describe the building blocks that go together to make up simple heuristics, and in section 4 we show how they can be combined into a variety of decision mechanisms for choice, categorization, estima- Is sinus tachycardia present? low risk tion, and other tasks. Next we introduce the concept of eco- logical rationality, and explain how fast and frugal heuristics can achieve reasonable performance by fitting particular in- yes no formation structures in the environment and being robust to environmental change. In section 6 we cover the ways that the performance of these heuristics can be measured, high risk low risk and some of the evidence to date that people use such sim- ple reasoning in particular decision tasks. We next relate our research to other recent notions of heuristics in section Figure 1. A simple decision tree for classifying incoming heart 7, and describe in section 8 the metaphor of the adaptive attack patients into high risk and low risk patients (adapted from toolbox which organizes the mind’s collection of simple Breiman et al. 1993). heuristics. We conclude with a set of questions remaining to be explored, and a summary of the view of bounded ra- tionality presented in the book. tors. Second, it ignores quantitative information by using only yes/no answers to the three questions. For instance, it does not care how much older or younger the patient is than 2. Visions of rationality: From demons the 62.5 year cut-off. Third, the strategy is a step-by-step to bounded rationality process; it may end after the first question and does not combine (e.g., weight and add) the values on the three pre- Humans and animals make inferences about their world dictors. Asking at most three yes/no questions is a fast and with limited time, knowledge, and computational power. In frugal strategy for making a decision. It is fast because it contrast, many models of rational inference view the mind does not involve much computation, and it is frugal because as if it were a supernatural being possessing demonic pow- it only searches for some of the available information. Its ers of reason, boundless knowledge, and all of eternity with simplicity raises the suspicion that it might be highly inac- which to make decisions. Such visions of rationality often curate, compared to standard statistical classification meth- conflict with reality. But we can use them as points of com- ods that process and combine all available predictors. Yet it parison to help clarify our own vision of ecological rational- is actually more accurate in classifying heart attack patients ity – adaptive behavior resulting from the fit between the according to risk status than are some rather complex sta- mind’s mechanisms and the structure of the environment in tistical classification methods (Breiman et al. 1993). The which it operates. more general form of this counterintuitive finding – that We start by considering two conceptual revolutions. The fast and frugal decision making can be as accurate as strate- first is the demise of the dream of certainty and the rise of gies that use all available information and expensive com- a calculus of uncertainty – probability theory – during what putation – forms one of the bases of our research program. is known as the probabilistic revolution (Gigerenzer et al. Our book, Simple heuristics that make us smart (here- 1989; Krüger et al. 1987). The probabilistic revolution has after Simple heuristics), is about fast and frugal heuristics shaped our picture of the mind in fields ranging from cog- for making decisions – how they work, and when and why nitive science to economics to animal behavior. Mental func- they succeed or fail. These heuristics can be seen as mod- tions are assumed to be computations performed on prob- els of the behavior of both living organisms and artificial sys- abilities and utilities (Gigerenzer & Murray 1987). In this tems. From a descriptive standpoint, they are intended to view, the laws of probability describe or prescribe sound capture how real minds make decisions under constraints reasoning, judgment, and decision making.