Tracing Shina and Wakhi Origins: Are Ethnic Classifications Commonly used in Demographic Studies Biologically Meaningful? By Patrick O’Neill Anthropology Program, School of Social Sciences and Education California State University, Bakersfield A Thesis submitted to the Anthropology Program, School of Social Sciences and Education California State University, Bakersfield In Partial Fullfillment for the Degree Masters of Art Winter 2013 2 Copyright By Patrick W. O’Neill 2012 1 3 Tracing Shina and Wakhi Origins: Are Ethnic Classifications Commonly used in Demographic Studies Biologically Meaningful? PW O’Neill Anthropology Program, School of Social Sciences and Education California State University, Bakersfield Abstract The primary goal of this research is to determine whether highland Pakistani populations share close biological affinities to one another, or if they represent phenetically distant groups. This research is undertaken in order to: 1. Test models of dental inheritance and patterns of sex dimorphism based on tooth size; 2. Assess the reliability of linguistic, archaeological, and historically based classification of ethnic groups commonly employed in demographic studies; and 3. Test four current models for South Asian population history with tooth-size allocation analysis. It is important to consider phenetic affinities based on tooth size to develop a more complete understanding of biological relationships and general patterns of microevolution among living Pakistani populations. Additionally, understanding patterns of phenetic affinities between groups in these regions allows important questions posed by linguists, archaeologists, geneticists and historians to be addressed scientifically. This study is significant because very little work has been accomplished in Pakistan by bioanthropologists and human biologists. Further, teeth provide a unique opportunity to compare living and archaeological populations, so that population affinities and possible patterns of migration may be traced both geographically and temporally. Phenetic affinities between populations are assessed via tooth-size allocation analysis. The samples that form the basis of this study include 14 archaeologically derived samples from Central Asia, the Indus Valley and west-central peninsular India, as well as samples of 18 living groups from northern Pakistan and peninsular India. This thesis introduces samples from two previously uninvestigated ethno-linguistic groups, the Wakhi (n=326) and the Shin (n = 280)of Gilgit-Baltistan, northern Pakistan. Maximum mesiodistal and buccolingual measurements were obtained for all permanent teeth except third molars in accordance with standardized methods. Individual measurements were scaled against the geometric mean to control for sex dimorphism and evolutionary tooth size reduction. Inter-sample differences in tooth size allocation is assessed with pairwise squared Euclidian distances and the patterning of phenetic affinities among samples is assessed with hierarchical cluster analysis, neighbor-joining cluster analysis, multidimensional scaling, and principal coordinates analysis. The inability to identify consistent aggregates encompassing Pakistani highland ethnic groups suggests that significant population movements into this region have occurred over the last 1000 years, a phenomenon that has intensified, according to many historical sources, over the past 300 years (see for example Dani 2006). On the other hand, consistent identification of close phenetic affinities among Shina and Wakhi samples from Gilgit-Baltistan suggest that populations in this region are potentially of indigenous origin, but it must be remembered that the boundaries between Central Asia and northern South Asia are blurred, especially from a biological perspective. Overall, it appears that Gilgit-Baltistanis and highland populations from Chitral do not share common origins, nor is it likely that a “Dardic” biological ethnicity can be accurately applied to all northern Pakistani ethnic groups that speak Indo-Aryan languages. This may be a result of marriages between proximal groups such as the Wakhi and the Shina who must seek marital partners outside of their villages in order to avoid incest taboos. Finally, and perhaps most importantly, is the fact that neither the small dialectical differences nor the occupation of different geographic locations between the two Shina groups considered in this study appears to have had any effect upon their biological affinities. Therefore, it appears that ethnic classifications based on linguistic familiarity have biological meaning, and are appropriate and meaningful when used properly in demographic studies. 4 Table of Contents List of Figures……………………………………………………………………………………………… 6 List of Tables………………………………………………………………………………….….………... 7 Acknowledgments…………………………………………………………………………….………….. 8 Chapter One: Introduction…………………………………………………………………………….. 9 Statement of the Problem…………………………………………………………………….. 9 Determining Phenetic Affinities via Biodistance Analysis……………………………… 10 Why Allocation of Permanent Tooth Size?............................................................ 11 South Asian Population History: Why Pakistan?.................................................. 12 Chapter Two: Justification of Tooth Size as an Indicator of Phenetic Affinities between Ethno-linguistic Groups……………………………………………………..…….. 13 Odontogenesis……………………………………………………………………………………. 13 Heritability of Dental Crown Size……………………………………………………………. 21 Use of Twin Studies to Assess Overall Genetic Control of Tooth Size……………….. 22 Evidence for Sex-linked Inheritance of Crown Diameters…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 25 Evidence of Heritability Demonstrated by Family and Sibling Studies……………… 26 Chapter Three: Ethno-historic Background………………………………………………………… 33 The Wakhi………………………………………………………………………………………… 33 The Shin…………………………………………………………………………………………… 41 Chapter Four: Previous Anthropometric, Anthroposcopic, and Genetic Research ………...49 Anthropometry and Anthroposcopy………………………………………………………………….. 49 Risley (1915)……………………………………………………………………………………… 49 Giufrida-Ruggeri (1917)………………………….………………………………………….... 54 Haddon (1924, 1929)…………………………………………………………………………… 55 Von-Eikstedt (1934)…………………………………………………………………………….. 58 Hutton (1932)…………………………………………………………………………………….. 60 Guha (1935, et al. 1951, 1955)………………………………………………………………. 64 Uniparental Molecular Genetic Markers…………………………………………………… 65 Chapter Five: Materials and Methods……………………………………………………………...... 73 Observer Error…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 75 Sex Dimorphism…………………………………………………………………………………………… 80 Asymmetry………………………………………………………………………………………………..... 86 Comparative Samples……………………………………………………………………………………. 88 Living South Indians……………………………………………………………………………………… 88 Living Northwest Indians………………………………………………………………………………... 94 Prehistoric Indus Valley…………………………………………………………………………………. 96 Prehistoric Central Asia…………………………………………………………………………………. 99 Living Pakistani Highlanders…………………………………………………………………………… 100 Chapter Six: Models and Expectations………………………………………………………………. 101 The Aryan Invasion Model………………………………………………………………………………. 103 The Long-Standing Continuity Model………………………………………………………………… 105 The Early Entrance Model………………………………………………………………………………. 107 The Historic Era Interactions Model………………………………………………………………….. 110 Expectations……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 112 Chapter Seven: Chapter Seven: Previous Odontometric Studies Conducted by Members of the Centre for South Asian Dental Research……………………………………….. 115 Chapter Eight: Results of Current Study……………………………………………………………. 134 Discussion………………………….………………………………………………………………………. 138 References………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 144 Appendix A: Descriptive Statistics...………………………………………………………………….. 168 Appendix B: Geometric Means…………………………………………………………………………. 171 Appendix C: Diagonal Matrix of simple Euclidean distances………..…………………………. 172 5 List of Figures Figure 1: Racial Types of India according to Risley (1915), slightly modified from the original text ………………………………………………..………………………………………………. 51 Figure 2: Risley’s (1915) examples of the seven Indian racial types.……...………………….. 53 Figure 3: Eickstedt’s (1952a) racial types of India..…………………………………………........ 59 Figure 4: Guha’s Racial Types …………………………………….………………………………...... 63 Figure 5: Bar Graph showing levels of intraobserver error……………………………………… 77 Figure 6: Bar graph showing levels of interobserver error …………………………………....... 79 Figure 7: Bar Graph Showing Levels of Sex Dimorphism among Wakhi Samples by Tooth and Dimension.……………………………………………….…………………………………… 82 Figure 8: Bar Graph Showing Percentage of Sex Dimorphism among Shina Samples by Tooth and Dimension…………………………………………………………………………..……. 84 Figure 9: Bar Graph Showing Percentage of Sex Dimorphism among Shina and Wakhi Samples by Tooth and Dimension..…………….………..………………………….………. 85 Figure 10: Locations of Collection of Odontometric Samples .………………….……………… 88 Figure 11: The Aryan Invasion Model………………………………………………………………… 104 Figure 12: The Long-Standing Continuity Model………………………………………………….. 106 Figure 13: The Early Entrance Model………………………………………………………………… 107 Figure 14: Renfrew’s (1987) hypotheses.……………………………………………………………. 108 Figure 15: The Historic Era Interactions Model……………………………………………………. 111 Figure 16: Preliminary results of Cluster Analysis (Hemphill et al. 2012), presented at the 2007 AAPA meetings (Hemphill et al. 2007)………………………………………………... 117 Figure 17: Preliminary results of Principal Coordinates Analysis (Hemphill