Copyright by Nikola Rajic 2016 The Dissertation Committee for Nikola Rajic Certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: Majestic Presence: Narrating the Transgender Self in 21st-Century Tamiḻakam Committee: Martha Selby, Supervisor Syed Akbar Hyder, Co-Supervisor Kathleen Stewart Sharmila Rudrappa Oliver Freiberger Majestic Presence: Narrating the Transgender Self in 21st-Century Tamiḻakam by Nikola Rajic, BA, MA Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of The University of Texas at Austin in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Texas at Austin August 2016 Dedication தனிமை뾿ன் கண்迀ர் 鏁ளி ப ோல உறவுகமை 鏁மைத்鏁 ힿட்பைோம் நிர்வோண ப ோழுதின் ரத்தம் ப ோல அமையோைங்கள் பைல்ல ைமறந்鏁 ப ோன鏁 ꏀண்ை பேரம் அைக்垿ய ைலம் ப ோல பவளிபயறின 殿ல புறச்殿க்கல்கள் ஏபதபதோ இழந்鏁ம், ப ற்쟁ம் கம்ꯀரைோய் நிற்垿றோள் ேோன் எனும் ப ண் “We have wiped off family ties like the tears of loneliness; Trickling like the blood of castration, identities slowly disappeared; Outside problems expelled, like shit held back for far too long; Whatever is lost, whatever gained She stands there majestically – a woman, me.” ** Poem by Living Smile Vidya ** I dedicate this dissertation to Smiley, Revathi and Priya for speaking up and making a change. May these brave explorers of their own selves be known to everyone, and may their stories move us to take a brave look into ourselves, so that we can heal, connect and ever change into “endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful.” Acknowledgements In the final verses of her celebrated poetic work Tiruppāvai, a medieval Tamil mystic Andal, apologizes to Krishna for addressing him with pet names, but, she says, she does it அன்பினோல், “out of love.” I evoke this poetic moment because I would like to apologize to everyone below for using mere words to express my immense gratitude and love, not just for helping me on the path of getting a doctoral degree, but also for sustaining me over the years with their genuine interest and affection in all my wanderings. Therefore, with endless love and gratitude, thank you, hvala, merci, ேன்றி, grazie: Mama Sandra for being the kindest, wisest and most sobering presence in my life. Tata Toni (Ante) for wondering at the world, in all its beauty and terror, and, even more importantly, for wanting to wonder at it with me since I can remember. Ana, for fiercely loving and supporting the craziest brother in the whole world. Baka Pepica for being The Grandma. Micah for feeling the connection, giving it all, and breaking me in all the right places. Zdravka Matišić, for being the true remover of obstacles in my life. Ines, for dreaming similar dreams, and, more importantly, for making some of the big ones possible for me. My prijateljice (‘female friends’) for wanting to play and becoming integral parts of “me”: Emilia, Ivona, Dagmar, Natalija, Maja, Priya N, Halide, Bojana, Paro, Dana, Dea, Mirka, Biba, Marija P, Marijana J., Vedrana… My Austin fambily: Gianluca, Zoran, Nasiha, Neri, Caroline, Mikie, Chris M, Brit, Rachael, Mirage, Melissa, Bob A, Senad, Jen, and Chris de Mirage. My Chennai brothers Manik and Edouard for daily Chennai greatness and caring when I could not. Ante GZ for being tambi No. 1. Christophe GZ for giving me that Ardhanarishvara bronze years ago, and for providing many important Indo-French initiations. Sanjin for making Vera and Marija so alive and so much fun. v My dissertation committee for being extraordinarily patient, well-intentioned and supportive all along the way: Drs. Martha Selby, Syed Akbar Hyder, Sharmila Rudrappa, Kathleen Stewart and Oliver Freiberger. Madurai AIIS Goddesses for their wisdom, forbearance and motherliness: Dr. S. Bharathi, Ms. P. Soundra Kohila and Kannamma. National Folklore Support Centre people in Chennai: Dr. Muthukumaraswamy and Vinodh Prem Dhas. Everyone in and around the Department of Asian Studies at UT, especially: Dr. Kathryn Hansen, Dr. Rupert Snell, Dr. Cynthia Talbot, Dr. Edeltraud Harzer, Dr. Gail Minault, Abby Black, Jennifer Tipton, and Jeannie Cortez. Rachel S Meyer and Kamran Asdar Ali from UT’s South Asia Institute for friendliness, support in research, and providing opportunity for me to “reach out”. Bob Hardgrave for reaching out. Dean Esther Raizen for reassuring open-mindedness, and everyone who presented or participated in the amazing Dissertation Boot Camp 2015. Andy for being my Maomi. Bharathi Kannamma for blessing me. Priya Babu for her candor and guidance. Revathi for making me cry. Smiley for living so loud. vi Majestic Presence: Narrating the Transgender Self in 21st-Century Tamiḻakam Nikola Rajic, Ph.D. The University of Texas at Austin, 2016 Supervisor: Martha Selby Co-Supervisor: Syed Akbar Hyder Abstract: The purpose of this dissertation is to document the emergence of a new identity of Tamil transgender women as articulated by transgender women themselves through works of autobiographies (Revathi’s Veḷḷai mōḻi and Living Smile Vidya’s Nān Vityā), fiction (Priya Babu’s novel Mūṉṟām pāliṉ mukam), or scholarship (Priya Babu’s ethnography of her community Aravāṇikaḷ, camūka varaiviyal). I pay special attention to how these women articulate their selfhood and the identity of their community in reaction to the specificities of the South Indian context (association with religious festivals such as the Aravaṉ festival in Koovagam, and other transgender phenomena in the Indian subcontinent). Self-narration, especially for stigmatized people and communities is inextricably linked to overcoming traumatic experiences, and for asserting new identities. Speaking and writing about one’s trauma can be a powerful force for transforming pain and loss into political action, and studying it can help us understand how trauma creates new possibilities of community and public culture that is as attentive to shame and alienation as it is to pride and solidarity. Therefore, I focus on trauma and stigma, as expressed in the aforementioned works, as vehicles for creating unique public cultures and artistic subjectivity. vii Table of Contents List of Figures ..........................................................................................................x Preface ......................................................................................................................1 Literature Review ............................................................................................4 Argument ........................................................................................................7 Chapter Outline ...............................................................................................9 Chapter 1: Wayfaring to Koovagam: Embodied Stories, Traveling Places ............................................................................9 Chapter 2: Tirunangai Self-Narratives: “A Medicine for the Wounds of the Heart” .................................................................10 Chapter 3: Their Own Ethnography: Priya Babu’s Aravāṉikaḷ Camūka Varaiviyal .....................................................................11 Conclusion ...........................................................................................12 A Note on Transliteration ..............................................................................13 Introduction: Toward an Ethnography of Empathy Or Nikola’s MAJOR “Glamor Fit” .................................................................................................14 Chapter 1: Wayfaring to Koovagam: Embodied Stories, Traveling Places ...........42 Abstract .........................................................................................................42 Suggested Performative Piece .......................................................................44 Predictions.....................................................................................................46 The story of Aravāṉ ......................................................................................49 The Cult of Aravāṉ .......................................................................................55 Epics as Generators of Identity and Authority ..............................................65 The Cults of Draupadi and Pattini, and Migratory Mother-Goddess Cults .....................................................................................................68 Concluding thoughts .....................................................................................74 Chapter 2: Tirunangai Self-Narratives: “A Medicine for the Wounds of the Heart” ......................................................................................................78 Abstract .........................................................................................................78 Shame and Performativity as Identity Makers ..............................................80 viii Revathi ..........................................................................................................85 Living Smile Vidya’s Nān Vityā ...................................................................96 Chapter 3: Their Own Ethnography: Priya Babu’s Aravāṉikaḷ Camūka Varaiviyal ....................................................................................................113 Abstract .......................................................................................................113 Introduction .................................................................................................120