The London School of Economics and Political Science The Moral Dilemmas of Journalism in Kenya’s Politics of Belonging Nicholas P. Benequista July 2016 A thesis submitted to the Department of Media and Communications of the London School of Economics and Political Science for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 1 Abstract This thesis explores the strategies pursued by Kenyan journalists as they contend with “the politics of belonging” in their work, arguing that the choices journalists make in the micro-processes of news production can be understood and guided from a moral perspective. The study addresses lingering questions about how journalists experience and respond to social divisions that can be created in the dynamic interaction between ethnic identity, personal networks and competitive party politics that characterizes a politics of belonging. Theoretically, it builds on an interpretation of Roger Silverstone’s normative theory of morality in the mediapolis and on the concepts of autonomy and agency developed within the sociology of journalism. A participatory and action-oriented methodology is employed to examine journalism practice: 10 journalists were engaged through a series of participatory workshops and interviews, and participant observation was undertaken through collaborations with these journalists on a variety of news experiments. Additional formal and informal interviews were conducted with other stakeholders who have an interest in news production. The thematic analysis of the resulting corpus of field notes and interview transcripts suggests that the Kenyan journalists who participated in the research experience the politics of belonging as a complex set of social pressures in their professional relationships, which create a series of challenges, trade-offs and dilemmas that they strategically negotiate in their daily practices and in the discourse of their news reports. The empirical analysis argues that the theoretical framing of journalism practice ― as envisaged by Francis Nyamnjoh and other scholars seeking to formulate African alternatives to Western traditions of journalism ― can be strengthened by integrating the concepts of journalistic autonomy and moral agency as developed in this thesis. The dissertation also offers insights into how such theoretical framings can be developed and implemented in the context of journalistic practice. 2 Declaration I certify that the thesis I have presented for examination for the PhD degree of the London School of Economics and Political Science is solely my own work other than where I have clearly indicated that it is the work of others (in which case the extent of any work carried out jointly by me and any other person is clearly identified). The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. Quotation from it is permitted, provided that a full acknowledgement is made. In accordance with the Regulations of Research Degrees, I have deposited an electronic copy of it in LSE Theses Online held by the British Library of Political and Economic Science and have granted permission for my thesis to be made available for public reference. Otherwise, this thesis may not be reproduced without my prior written consent. I warrant that this authorization does not, to the best of my belief, infringe the rights of any third party. This thesis consists of 75,500 words. Statement of use of third party for editorial help I can confirm that my thesis was copyedited for conventions of language, spelling and grammar by Judy Hartley of Quincewood Communications. 3 Acknowledgements First and foremost, I would like to acknowledge the vital contribution to this thesis of the journalists who participated in the Networked News Lab. Whilst I take all responsibility for any errors of fact and interpretation, the credit for any insights deserves to be shared by all who participated. It has been a privilege to engage with such a talented and committed group of journalists, and I make no apologies if this thesis conveys the admiration I feel for them both personally and professionally. Thank you, Abdi Latif and Bertha Kang’ong’oi, for all that you have taught me. To the other research participants who shall remain anonymous, I must regrettably extend my gratitude to them without naming them. I can, however, extend my thanks to Parselelo Kantai, Jane Thuo, Rasna Warah, Charles Obbo and Tom Maliti for their help in assembling this exceptional group of individuals, and for their sage advice throughout the process. I am deeply thankful also to the individuals and institutions that supported my efforts. Without the early endorsement of Charlie Beckett and Linje Manyozo, this research would never have been possible. I am grateful also to the UK Economic and Social Research Council and to Twaweza for their financial support. Catherine Reynolds and Francis Manu at the London School of Economics were both essential to the success of the grant. I owe thanks to Jonathan Fox, Christine Kamau and Hillary Mutisya at iDC Ltd. in Nairobi for the use of their offices, administrative support and for their friendship, and to Boniface Mwangi and the rest of the team at Pawa254 for the use of their space and for their camaraderie. I would also like to thank Judith Sandford and Claudia Quiñonez for their hospitality in London. To Mulene Sugebo, I am grateful for the peace, quiet and functioning Internet afforded in the final stages of this thesis by the World Bank offices in Addis Ababa. It has been an honour and privilege to carry out this research under the tutelage of Robin Mansell and Wendy Willems. Robin was patient and accommodating of my efforts to juggle family, career and school, and yet uncompromising in the academic standards that she set for me. I will be ever the wiser for what she has 4 taught me about scholarship, and forever grateful for her generous support. Wendy assumed supervision of this thesis late in the process, but she was nonetheless invaluable. Her feedback and comments, delivered with her characteristic equanimity, helped to bring this thesis together in the critical final stages. I owe perhaps the greatest gratitude to my wife and partner, Sarah Coll-Black, for all of the above. She has provided financial, administrative and moral support; been a supervisor, counsellor and friend; and has accompanied me on every step of this journey with unwavering love and commitment. Finally, to my children, Miles and Anna, for their ceaseless efforts to distract me from my work, their scribbled graffiti on notes and drafts, their sabotage of my laptop, and innumerable other acts of youthful mischief, I should owe no particular thank you or acknowledgement, and yet to whom I still somehow owe everything. 5 Table of Contents 1 INTRODUCTION 11 1.1 Context 11 1.2 The moral strategies of Kenyan journalists 14 1.3 The structure of the thesis 18 2 KENYAN MEDIA AND THE POLITICS OF BELONGING 20 2.1 Chapter overview 20 2.2 Ethnicity and tribalism in Africa 21 2.3 Media and the politics of belonging 26 2.4 Kenyan journalism and the politics of belonging 28 2.4.1 How Kenyan media are unlike Cameroonian media 29 2.4.2 The politics of belonging in journalistic practice 31 2.5 Normative models for African journalism 34 2.6 Chapter summary 39 3 JOURNALISTIC AUTONOMY AND MORAL AGENCY 40 3.1 Chapter overview 40 3.2 Mediation and morality 41 3.2.1 Mediation as a process of meaning-making across boundaries 41 3.2.2 The mediapolis as a normative framework 45 3.3 The sociology of journalistic autonomy 53 3.3.1 Journalism as organizational routine and practice 55 3.3.2 Journalism as a site of discursive conflict 58 3.3.3 Journalism as technologically enabled practice 61 3.4 Locating sources of morality in the news 65 3.4.1 Morality in news narratives 68 3.4.2 Morality in news practices 71 6 3.4.3 Morality in moral witnessing 73 3.5 Conceptual framework and research questions 75 3.5.1 Conceptualizing journalistic autonomy and moral agency in the mediapolis 75 3.6 Paths not taken 78 3.7 Chapter summary 79 4 METHODOLOGY: ACTION RESEARCH AND PRAXIS 81 4.1 Aims and overview of the research process 81 4.2 Action research, reflective practice and the mediapolis 82 4.2.1 The basic principles of action research 82 4.2.2 Action research in media studies 85 4.2.3 Opportunities and challenges for action research in the mediapolis 87 4.2.4 Operationalizing the research questions 91 4.3 The Networked News Lab 94 4.3.1 Selection of country case and participants 97 4.3.2 Chronology of events 101 4.3.3 The role of the researcher and normative theory in facilitating the process 105 4.4 Data collection methods 106 4.4.1 Participant observation 106 4.4.2 Workshops and interviews 109 4.4.3 News stories 113 4.4.4 Excluded data 113 4.5 Data analysis methods 114 4.6 Understanding validity in this thesis 116 4.6.1 Triangulation 117 4.6.2 Construct and face validity 118 4.6.3 Catalytic validity 120 4.7 Ethical considerations 122 4.8 Chapter summary 124 5 MORAL INTENT AND JOURNALISTIC AUTONOMY IN KENYA 126 5.1 Chapter overview 126 7 5.2 Personal roots of obligation 128 5.3 Relationships in the newsroom 136 5.3.1 Strategic choices and moral intent in the newsroom 138 5.4 Relationships with sources 143 5.4.1 Strategic choices and moral intent with sources 147 5.5 Relationships with the public 151 5.5.1 Strategic choices and moral intent on social media 153 5.5.2 Strategic choices and moral intent in the news text 154 5.6 Chapter summary 157 6 STRATEGIES FOR MORAL AGENCY IN KENYAN NEWS 160 6.1 Chapter overview 160 6.2 Morality and the coverage