Appendix 1 Cicero: Rhetorical Theories Cicero spent his adulthood in the last decades (106-43 BCE) of the Roman Republic (509-31 BCE). His life reflects and represents that of people of power and high social status in the Rome of his day. Cicero was one of the most powerful and influential men in the civic society of Rome in the first century BCE. As Plutarch (c. 45-120 CE) states: “He had the greatest power in the state.”1 He goes on to describe Cicero‟s status; “Cicero‟s power in the city (or Rome) reached its greatest height at this time, and since he could do what he pleased… (Octavianus) Caesar sent messengers to Cicero begging and urging him to…manage affairs as he himself thought best.”2 Cicero was a significant figure in the history of Roman politics and rhetoric. Moreover, it seems impossible to speak of Roman history without dealing with him. Thus, Quayle states, Whatever estimate you may retain concerning Cicero, you cannot leave him out of the history of Rome…you cannot write a history of Rome and leave Marcus Tullius Cicero out…He was not the greatest man in his day, but he was the most versatile man in Rome. I take it he was the greatest man produced, save Julius Caesar only, who was a Hercules. All other men only reached to this Hercules‟s belt.3 For these reasons, the Romans of his time and the next generations were greatly 1Plutarch, Cicero, 24.1; also 40.1; 43.1. 2Plutarch, Cicero, 45.4-6. Dio Cassius supports this. He highlights in his Roman History Cicero‟s political career and his power by the time Julius Caesar was assassinated (March 44 BCE). When Rome was politically chaotic, he took control in the senate and united the members of the senate and protected it from factionalism. The senators valued and followed all Cicero‟s advice. Cassius says, “Cicero, whose advice they (the senators) actually followed…” (Dio Cassius, Roman History, 44.22). As a contemporary of Julius Caesar and Pompey, Cicero began his political career as a magistrate or Quaestore in 75 BCE. He then took several different positions: senator (74 BCE), Curle Aedile (69 BCE), Praetor Urbanus (66 BCE), consul (63 BCE), Augur (53 BCE), and proconsul of Cilicia (51-50 BCE). He was then in exile and retired from public service before the death of Julius Caesar in 44 BCE (see Cicero, Post Reditum in Senatu, 21; Epistularum ad Atticum, 1.4; Epistulae ad Familiares, 15.4.8- 10; 16.11.3; 16.12.5; Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, 14.66; Strabo, Geography, 10.2.13; Plutarch, Cicero, 8.1; see also Cowell, Cicero and the Roman Republic, 1-2, 165-269; T. Robert S. Broughton, The Magistrates of the Roman Republic: vol. 2: 99 BCE–31 BCE [Chico: Scholars Press, 1984], 97- 357). W.A. Quayle names the places Cicero visited: Athens, Rhodes, Samos, Ephesus, Galatia, Antioch (in Syria), Laodicea, Cappadocia, Parthia, Phrigia, Lycaonia, Iconium, Cilicia, Tarsus, Asia, and Pamphylia (Quayle, “Cicero and Paul,” 709-10). 3Quayle, “Cicero and Paul,” 711. 296 influenced by Cicero and his theory of rhetoric and eloquence. An example from Plutarch illustrates this point. “I (Plutarch) learn that (Octavianus) Caesar…paid a visit to one of his daughter‟s sons; and the boy…had in his hands a book of Cicero…Caesar took the book (from him) and read a great part of it as he stood…then gave it back to the youth, saying: „a learned man, my child, a learned man and a lover of his country‟.”4 Furthermore, many Romans in the first and second century CE, who spoke either Latin or Greek, were inspired by Cicero.5 In other words, he still lived on in the spirit of Roman and Greco-Roman culture and became an icon of Greco-Roman rhetoric in the first century Roman world. This is clearly evidenced in Plutarch‟s language, “his (Cicero‟s) fame for oratory abides to this day.”6 In addition, Cicero appears frequently in such Greek and Latin writings of the first and second century CE as Tacitus (c. 55-120 CE)‟s Dialogue de Oratoribus, Suetonius (c. 75-140 CE)‟s De Rhetoribus, and Dio Cassius (c. 150 CE- c.235 CE)‟s Roman History.7 It is appropriate, therefore, to use Cicero and his rhetorical theories as a model of Greco- Roman rhetorical patterns in the first century Roman colony of Corinth. In agreement with Aristotle,8 Cicero claims that there are three different types of oratory or rhetorical discourse – deliberative (deliberativo), epideictic 4Plutarch, Cicero, 49.5. 5No doubt this included contemporaries of the Corinthians addressed in 1 Corinthians 1-4, in whose civic society Greco-Roman rhetoric and patronal structures were important in relation to social class. 6Plutarch, Cicero, 2.5. 7For more details see 2.1 above. 8The characteristics of Aristotle‟s three genres of oratory may be summarised in this way: An orator or author uses a deliberative rhetoric when s/he intends to persuade his/her hearers to take some action in the future. This sort of speech is either „exhortation‟ (protropē) or „dissuasion‟ (apotropē). Its primary concern is to promote the beneficial or advantageous (to sumpheron). The orator employs a judicial oratory when s/he is seeking to urge the audience to make a judgment about events that occurred in the past. This judicial speech is either „prosecution‟ (katēyoria) or „defence‟ (apologia). Its central issue is justice (to dikaion). An author or speaker uses epideictic oratory when s/he wants to persuade hearers to reaffirm or take hold of some viewpoint in the present, while the author celebrates (or praises) or denounces (or blames) some people or some quality. This kind of speech is „praise‟ or „encomium‟ (epainos) or „blame‟ or „invective‟ (psogos). The central concern is what is honourable (to kalon) (Aristotle, Rhetoric, 1:3 1358b8-28; see also Kennedy, New Testament Interpretation, 19; Fiorenza, “Rhetorical Situation,” 390-1). These rhetorical genres also appear in Cicero‟s description of rhetoric, but with some further developments. 297 (demonstrativo) (or demonstrative), and judicial (iudiciali) (or forensic). Nonetheless, Cicero‟s description of these oratorical types is slightly different from Aristotle. Epideictic (or demonstrative) discourse is present-situation-oriented oratory. It is used when an orator praises and censures a person. This sort of speech has to do with what is honourable about the person. Epideictic speech deals with the person‟s attributes: mind (animi), body (corporis), and external circumstances (extraneae).9 The virtue of mind (animi) comprises wisdom (sapientia or prudentia), justice (institia), courage (fortitudo), and temperance (temperantia).10 The virtue of body (corporis) consists of health (valentudo), beauty (dignitas), strength (vires), and speed (velocitas). And the external circumstances are public office (honos), money (pecunia), connexions by marriage (affinitas), high birth (genus), friends (amici), country (patria), and power (potentia). In speaking of these virtues and circumstances, an orator praises and censures his subject and also his audience and promotes honourable attitudes within the audience. In summary, epideictic speech focuses on issues of honour.11 Deliberative rhetoric is future-oriented discourse. It is commonly employed in political debates. Using this class of speech, an orator expresses his/her opinion on a political subject.12 Cicero argues that deliberative oratory is delivered to “retain, increase or acquire some advantage (utilitas)” and some honour (honesta), “or on the other hand to throw off, lessen or avoid some disadvantage” or dishonour.13 Cicero further states, “in the deliberative type…Aristotle accepts advantage as the end, but I 9Cicero, De Inventione, 2.59.177. 10Cicero describes wisdom as “the knowledge of what is good or bad”(Cicero, De Inventione 2.53.159- 165). 11Cicero, De Inventione, 2.59.177; 2.51.156. The elements of epideictic type are found in 1 Cor 1-4 (see 2.1.2 above). 12Cicero, De Inventione, 2.4.13. 13Cicero, De Inventione 2.5.18. 298 prefer both honour and advantage”14 This is evidence that Cicero‟s definition of rhetoric is slightly different from Aristotle and that he developed his theory of rhetoric further on the basis of Aristotle‟s theory of rhetoric. Cicero also argues that in using deliberative oratory, an orator seeks in his/her audience the following things:15 The first thing has to do with something honourable (honesta) that attracts the audience not by any prospect of gain but by its natural merit and its own worth. Belonging to this category are virtue (virtus), knowledge (scientia), and truth (veritas).16 The second has to do with something advantageous (utilia) that draws an audience‟s attention not because of its own worth and intrinsic goodness, but because of some profit and advantage that is derived from it. Money belongs to this class.17 The last thing is sought by uniting qualities of honour and advantage, such as a good reputation, friendship, rank, glory, and influence.18 These have to do with something that “entices people and leads them on, and also holds out 14Cicero, De Inventione, 2.51.156. 15“On the opposite side an equal number to be avoided” (Cicero, De Inventione, 2.52.157). 16See Cicero, De Inventione 2.52.157. The virtue here refers to virtues of mind such as wisdom, justice, courage, and temperance. They themselves are honourable (Cicero, De Inventione 2.53.159). 17See Cicero, De Inventione, 2.52.157. 18These possess their own intrinsic merit. They bring about advantages as well. “Friendship is a desire to do good to some one simply for the benefit of the person whom one loves, with a requital of the feeling on his/her part.