“We Shall Go Forth”: A Musical Analysis of the Women’s Music Movement, 1969-1985 By Jessica Leann Freyermuth M.M., Kansas State University, 2010 B.M., Kansas State University, 2008 Submitted to the graduate degree program in Musicology and the Graduate Faculty of the University of Kansas in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Chair: Roberta Freund Schwartz Colin Roust Alan Street Ketty Wong Katie Batza Date Defended: The dissertation committee for Jessica Freyermuth certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: “We Shall Go Forth”: A Musical Analysis of the Women’s Music Movement, 1969-1985 Chair: Roberta Freund Schwartz Date Approved: ii Abstract In the wake of the social and political movements that defined the 1960s, the women’s music movement emerged as a means to cultivate an outlet for young lesbian musicians who saw themselves as equal to their straight male counterparts, but were unwilling to compromise their musical integrity in order to perform on major labels. The movement became a social experience, as women’s music artists would tour coffee shops, college campuses, and feminist bookstores to perform their woman-identified woman music to all-female audiences. The concerts eventually grew into larger events, such as the National Women’s Music Festival and the Michigan Womyn’s Music Festival, which offered women of myriad backgrounds a safe space to gather as friends, family, and lovers. Within this cultural movement were musicians Margie Adam, Meg Christian, Alix Dobkin, Kay Gardner, Holly Near, Linda Tillery, Mary Watkins, and Cris Williamson. Together they created a soundtrack for lesbians throughout the 1970s. There was no unifying genre to the music produced during this movement. Some women were folk singer-songwriters, while others were classically trained musicians and composers. Their experiences were eclectic, and often encompassed other social and political causes of the decade. Many songs dealt with the topic of sexual identity. Some were anti-war anthems, while others explored non-western cultures and the medicinal power of music. It is because the music of this movement has not been analyzed in previous discussions of this topic that these pieces require attention. This dissertation surveys a selection of songs from each of the eight artists listed above during the period from 1969-1985. These pieces demonstrate the diverse output of this movement. They are also indicative of a variety of influences, which can be linked to mainstream popular artists and classical composers of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. iii Acknowledgements The completion of this document would not have been possible without the support of many people along the way. First, I would like to thank my advisor, Roberta Schwartz, for her guidance and support throughout this process. There were moments when it seemed impossible to imagine all of the pieces coming together, but your vision helped me remain focused. I would also like to thank my committee: Colin Roust, Ketty Wong, Alan Street, and Katie Batza. I also owe a special thanks to Alicia Levin. Thank you, Dr. Levin, for introducing me to the materials that led me to this topic. The early stages of this document began in an accent chair in your office and a copy of Queering The Pitch in my hand. I am grateful to the staff at the Lesbian Herstory Archive in Brooklyn, NY, the Arthur and Elizabeth Schlesinger Library on the History of Women at Harvard University, and the Sophia Smith Collection of Women’s History at Smith College. This dissertation would not have been complete without the materials found in these collections. I am especially grateful to the women of the women’s music movement who were willing to speak with me, and took the time to connect me with countless sources. These women include: Margie Adam, Toni Armstrong, Jr., Jenifer Butler, Alix Dobkin, Sue Fink, Juliana Forbes, Leslie D. Judd, Bonnie Morris, and Holly Near. Words cannot capture the magnitude of my appreciation for all of you. Thank you for taking the time to correspond with me, interview for this project, and entrust me with your music. I am honored and humbled by your generosity. I would like to thank my friends, my colleagues at KU, my co-workers, and my family for their constant support. Lastly, I would like to thank my wife, Amanda. You are my biggest fan, and I could not have survived this process without you. iv Table of Contents List of Music Examples ................................................................................................... vi Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 1 Literature Review ....................................................................................................................... 2 Methodology ............................................................................................................................... 8 Chapter One: Second-Wave Feminism and Other Concurrent Movements ............ 18 Betty Friedan and The Feminine Mystique ............................................................................ 19 National Organization for Women ......................................................................................... 23 Radicalesbians and “The Woman-Identified Woman” ........................................................ 25 Women’s Liberation Movement ............................................................................................. 29 Radical Feminism .................................................................................................................. 30 Lesbian Separatism ................................................................................................................ 33 Women of Color and Second-Wave Feminism ...................................................................... 37 Gay Liberation Movement ...................................................................................................... 40 Stonewall Riots ...................................................................................................................... 41 The Lavender Scare ............................................................................................................... 45 Representation of Women in Mainstream Music ................................................................. 51 Chapter Two: Biography – Artists of the Women’s Music Movement ..................... 59 Maxine Feldman ....................................................................................................................... 61 Alix Dobkin ............................................................................................................................... 63 Kay Gardner ............................................................................................................................. 76 Holly Near ................................................................................................................................. 81 Meg Christian ........................................................................................................................... 88 Cris Williamson ........................................................................................................................ 93 Margie Adam ............................................................................................................................ 98 Women’s Music – Record Labels ......................................................................................... 103 Women’s Music – Publications ............................................................................................. 111 Women-Only Spaces .............................................................................................................. 119 Chapter Three: Music Analysis – “Women On Wheels” .......................................... 126 Meg Christian ......................................................................................................................... 127 Cris Williamson ...................................................................................................................... 146 Margie Adam .......................................................................................................................... 160 Holly Near ............................................................................................................................... 179 Chapter Four: Music Analysis – “Lavender Jane and Other Wise Women” ......... 192 Kay Gardner ........................................................................................................................... 192 Alix Dobkin ............................................................................................................................. 218 Linda Tillery ........................................................................................................................... 235 Mary Watkins ......................................................................................................................... 246 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 259 Discography ................................................................................................................... 265 Bibliography .................................................................................................................