antarc tic [1 OFTHE IIUNITED I] STATES December 1982 National Science Foundation Volume XVII—Number 4 dramatically demonstrated in Antarctica. 25th anniversary of the International The participating nations established sta- Geophysical Year tions in all areas of the continent and sci- entific personnel and ::nformation were The International Geophysical Year ated by the International Council of Sci- exchanged openly through such programs (1957-58) brought together from 67 coun- entific Unions to plan the global science as Antarctic Weather Central. In 1981 at tries approximately 25,000 scientists, work- program, called the Antarctic "a region of the Eleventh Antarctic Treaty Consulta- ing at 2,500 stations around the world. almost unparalleled interest in the fields tive Meeting representatives recognized the From their investigations of the Earths of geophysics and geography" and pointed importance of the IGY to current antarc- environment the world gained a large, coor- out how little was known about the con- tic research programs as they commemo- dinated data base on geomagnetism, the tinent. When the antarctic portion of the rated the 20th anniversary of the Treatys ionosphere, aurora, and cosmic rays. The IGY began, 12 nations were participating, entry into force. They cited the IGY as first 24-hour watches of solar flares, sun- and 55 stations were established around the model for the Treatys foundation of spots, and other solar phenomena were the continent and on subantarctic islands. continued, peaceful cooperation and free- conducted. Coordinated programs in seis- Nine major scientific programs were plan- dom of scientific investigation. mology, gravity, geodesy, and oceanogra- ned for Antarctica: the aurora, cosmic rays, phy improved understanding of the Earth geomagnetism, glaciology, gravity, iono- spheric physics, meteorology, seismology, and oceans, and the voluntary sharing of Albert Crary, deputy chief scientist of and an international weather center (Ant- data through the World Data Center sys- the U.S. IGY program and later chief sci- arctic Weather Central.) Along with these tem was initiated. entist of the U.S. Antarctic Research Pro- programs there was oceanography, bio- gram, wrote the following article in rec- The International Geophysical Year logy, and medical sciences. (IGY) also opened the way for research in ognition of the 25th anniversary of the two remote regions—space and the Ant- IGY. Dr. Crary focuses on planning for arctic. In 1954 the Comité Special de The success of cooperative efforts by the IGY and on how the IGY laid the foun- lAnnée Géophysique Internationale, cre- the worlds scientists during the IGY was dation for todays antarctic research. carried out Operation l-lighjump, the largest International Geophysical Year: Its array of ships, aircraft, and men ever assembled in Antarctica. Some 4,700 men evolution and U.S. participation supported by 13 ships and 25 aircraft con- ducted scientific investigations, trained and tested equipment under polar conditions, The idea for the Third International covery Plan, poured in huge sums of money and studied the feasibility of establishing Polar Year (TIPY), later to become the to help rebuild these war-ravaged nations. an airbase on ice. Approximately 60 per- International Geophysical Year (IGY), was In the far north a new military geography cent of the antarctic coastline, including introduced in 1950, 5 years after the end evolved, pitting Alaska, Canada, and previously unseen areas, was photographed. of World War II. In those postwar years, Greenland against the USSR across the A second U.S. Navy expedition in 1947-48, the cold-war struggle between the commu- Arctic Ocean. The western group hastened Operation Windmill, named by the press nists and democracies at times erupted in to increase its polar proficiency with such for its extensive use of helicopters to reach hitter fighting along the boundaries of the arctic expeditions as "Nanook" and "Muk- isolated areas, provided additional ground- two camps. Stalin, the leader of the Union luk," routine U. S. Air Force polar flights control for Highjump photography. of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), was from Alaskan bases, the installation of anxious to have communist-controlled weather stations in northern Canada, and Early planning buffer states along his western boundaries the construction of Greenland bases. In 1948 the U.S. State Department made and tightened his grip on the eastern Euro- During this period U. S. attention also a formal appeal to Argentina, Australia, pean nations. In western Europe the United turned toward the south. In the austral Chile, France, Great Britain, New Zealand, States leaders, through the European Re- summer of 1946-1947, the U.S. Navy and Norway (the seven nations with ant- arctic claims) to initiate discussions of the research was Lloyd Berkner. The idea of attention to the convening of the first sovereignty problem. At the same time the TIPY was introduced by Berkner, a tall, CSAGI meeting in June 1953 in Brussels. State Department asked the National Acad- pipe-smoking scientist who had been a emy of Sciences (NAS) to examine the pos- radio technician in the first Byrd Antarc- With help from Wallace Atwood of NAS sibilities of a coordinated program of ant- tic Expedition (1928-1930). After the Byrd and an ad hoc American Geophysical Union arctic research. Neither of these efforts Expedition he joined the Carnegie Institu- committee, Berkner lost no time in getting came to fruition. In 1950 when the USSR tion of Washington (CIW) where much the U.S. National Committee for the ICY learned of these sovereignty discussions, of the new and exciting work on the iono- (USNC) organized. The original 20 mem- the Soviet government made it clear that sphere was being done. From 1941 to 1946 bers included 15 from Federal agencies and no territorial settlements should be made Berkner served in the Navy, particularly the CIW and reflected the broad nature of without USSR participation. in the development of radar, and later was the programs. Joseph Kaplan, University appointed to head a committee that was of California auroral physicist and Air Force Among those serving on the 1948 NAS evaluating the relative importance of consultant, was appointed chairman. Dur- committee considering coordinated antarctic weapon systems for the national military ing two meetings in March and May 1953, establishment. As a special assistant at the the USNC put together a U.S. ICY pro- State Department in 1949, he directed work gram focused on upper atmosphere phys- in the military assistance program for the ics and meteorology. The antarctic program included a coastal station and two in the * The Academy did, however, publish Antarctic North Atlantic Security Pact nations. Later he surveyed the State Departments respon- interior, one of the latter at the geographic Research: Elements of a Coordinated Program South Pole. in May 1949. sibilities in international science. For the CSAGI meeting in Brussels 22 Although Berkner later referred to his members and observers (including three idea of TIPY as a spur-of-the-moment from the U.S.) from 12 nations were pres- thought, it should not have been totally ent. It is safe to say that never again was unexpected. Regardless of the origin of such a small delegation present for such the idea, Berkner introduced it and steered it an important meeting. After Chapman was through its early years. elected President, 11 discipline groups were formed and a combined program put to- Berkners proposal for TIPY was ap- gether from the 26 various national and proved by the Commission on the Iono- union programs. Despite the necessary sphere at its July 1950 meeting. In August it overlap of personnel in these groups, this was endorsed by the General Assembly of program, with one revision by the partic- the Union Radio Scientifique Internatio- ipating nations, easily could have served nale (URSI) and in September by the Execu- as the final IGY plan. tive Committee of the International Astro- nomical Union. The third union sponsor National Science Foundation and the IGY Editor: Winifred Reuning of the Commission on the Ionosphere, the The financing of the U.S. IGY program International Union of Geodesy and Geo- was debated in the USNC meetings, but Antarctic Journal of the United States, physics (IUGG), endorsed TIPY at its Gen- of all possibilities only a single congres- established in 1966, reports on U.S. eral Assembly in September 1951. The next sional budget seemed satisfactory. By the activities in Antarctica and related activi- month at the meeting of the Executive ties elsewhere, and on trends in the end of 1953 the National Science Founda- Board of the International Council of Sci- U.S. Antarctic Research Program. It is tion (NSF), a small independent agency entific Unions (ICSU) the three union pres- published quarterly (March, June, Sep- created by a 1950 Act of Congress (the idents confirmed their endorsements of tember, and December) with a fifth an- same year TIPY was proposed), appeared nual review issue by the Division TIPY. ICSU then authorized its Bureau to to be the logical choice. The NSF budget of Polar Programs, National Science form a special committee. In September for fiscal 1954 was about $8 million prin- Foundation, Washington, D.C. 20550. 1952 the ICSUs executive board approved cipally for support of research and science Telephone: 202/357-7817. the Bureaus membership nominations, wel- education at universities. NSF Director comed the International Geographical Subscription rates are $11.00 per five Alan Waterman, an astute science admin- issues, domestic, and $13.75 per five Union and the World Meteorological Orga- istrator, had followed the ICY plans closely. nization to the program, and agreed with issues, foreign; single copies are $2.25 In all probability, the letter from NAS to ($2.85 foreign) except for the annual the English geophysicist Sidney Chapmans NSF in November, asking NSF to consider review issue, which is $7.00 ($8.75 suggestion that the project be worldwide funding the IGY program, had his prior foreign).