INFORMATION TO USERS This reproduction was made from a copy of a document sent to us for microfilming. While the most advanced technology has been used to photograph and reproduce this document, the quality of the reproduction is heavily dependent upon the quality of the material submitted. The following explanation of techniques is provided to help clarify markings or notations which may appear on this reproduction. 1.The sign or “target” for pages apparently lacking from the document photographed is “Missing Page(s)” . If it was possible to obtain the missing page(s) or section, they are spliced into the film along with adjacent pages. This may have necessitated cutting througli an image and duplicating adjacent pages to assure complete continuity. 2. When an image on the film is obliterated with a round black mark, it is an indication of either blurred copy because of movement during exposure, duplicate copy, or copyrighted materials that should not have been filmed. For blurred pages, a good image of the page can be found in the adjacent frame. If copyrighted materials were deleted, a target note will appear listing the pages in the adjacent frame. 3. When a map, drawing or chart, etc., is part of the material being photographed, a definite method of “sectioning” the material has been followed. It is customary to begin filming at the upper left hand comer of a large sheet and to continue from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. If necessary, sectioning is continued again—beginning below the first row and continuing on until complete. 4. For illustrations that cannot be satisfactorily reproduced by xerographic means, photographic prints can be purchased at additional cost and inserted into your xerographic copy. These prints are available upon request from the Dissertations Customer Services Department. 5. Some pages in any document may have indistinct print. In all cases the best available copy has been filmed. UniversiV Miaxxilms International 300 N. Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Ml 48106 8504326 Kim, Ben Sun FORCED POLITICAL REORIENTATION IN JAPAN: A STUDY OF THE IMPACT OF DEFEAT ON JAPANESE NATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS The University of Oklahoma Ph.D. 1984 University Microfilms I nte rnâti O n âiæ o N. zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, MI 48106 Copyright 1984 by Kim, Ben Sun All Rights Reserved PLEASE NOTE: In all cases this material has been filmed in the best possible way from the available copy. Problems encountered with this document have been identified here with a check mark V 1. Glossy photographs or pages. 2. Colored illustrations, paper or print______ 3. Photographs with dark background______ •4. Illustrations a re poor c o______ p y 5. Pages with black marks, not original copy. 6. Print shows through as there is text on both sides of page. 7. Indistinct, broken or small print on several pages. 8. Print exceeds margin requirements______ 9. Tightly bound copy with print lost in_______ spine 10. Com puter printout pag es with indistinct print. 11. P ag e(s)_____________lacking when material received, and not available from school or author. 12. P a g e (s)_____________seem to be missing in numbering only as text follows. 13. Two pages n u m b ere_____________ d . Text follows. 14. Curling and wrinkled p a g______ e s 15. O ther________________________________ _____________ ______________ _______________ University Microfilms International THE UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA GRADUATE COLLEGE FORCED POLITICAL REORIENTATION IN JAPAN: A STUDY OF THE IMPACT OF DEFEAT ON JAPANESE NATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE FACULTY in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OP PHILOSOPHY By BEN SUN KIM Norman, Oklahoma 1984 FORCED POLITICAL REORIENTATION IN JAPAN: A STUDY OF THE IMPACT OF DEFEAT ON JAPANESE NATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS APPROVED FOR THE DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE By ©V . Copyright December 1984 by Ben Sun Kim, I ' l l ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Like any doctoral candidate, I have incurred many unrepayable debts in the course of my schooling. I wish to express my thanks to Professors Doo-Hun Kim, Yun-Hyok Kwon, and Wee-Don Chand, among other teachers in Korea, who stimulated my interest in Japanese national consciousness with which this dissertation is concerned. In particular, I wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to Professors Oliver Benson, Hugh MacNiven, Larry Hill, Ronald Peters, Vivien W. Ng and Sidney Brown, who served on my dissertation committee. I owe my greatest appreciation to Dr. Oliver Benson, chairman of my dissertation committee, for his readily available, gracious help and advice and his constant concern for the completion of my dissertation. I must note that the dissertation could not have been completed without Dr. Benson's personal attention and encouragement. I would also like to express my deep appreciation to Dr. Donald J. Maletz who, as graduate advisor, has rendered extraordinary help and understanding toward my personal problems. I also wish to thank Mr. Ota of the Japanese section and Mrs. Elizabeth Jenkins-Joffe of the East Asia division in the Library of Congress for assisting me in locating needed source materials. I owe more than I can readily express to Mrs. Christine Anderson who masqueraded as a typist but performed as a resident representative during my long absence from Oklahoma. Last but not least, my biggest and most special thanks go to my wife Hannah who, working as the family's primary breadwinner, tolerated many years of my schooling and gave up many evenings and weekend hours because of my love affair with the dissertation; to my mother-in-law, Mrs. Heh-eun Kim, who endured being a built-in babysitter for my children, and to my sons, Daniel and Samuel, who were forced to lead a semi-fatherless life because of my engrossment in working on the dissertation. Ben Sun Kim November 24, 1984 IV TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES vi Chapter I. INTRODUCTION .................................... 1 PART ONE CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPANESE NATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS II. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF NATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS................... 17 III. JAPAN'S IMITATION OF WESTERN POWERS ........... 54 IV. FORTIFICATION OF NATIONALISM: SHINTOISM ....... 89 V. FORTIFICATION OF NATIONALISM: KOKUTAI ........ 131 VI. FORTIFICATION OF NATIONALISM: "THOUGHT-CONTROL".............................. 168 PART TWO FORCED POLITICAL REORIENTATION VII. DEFEAT AND OCCUPATION......................... 205 VIII. NATIONAL RESOLVE IN DEFEAT .................... 211 IX. DEMOCRATIZATION BY F I A T ....................... 224 X. "HUMANIZATION" OF THE EMPEROR................. 267 XI. DEMOCRATIZED TRADITIONAL MENTALITY ............ 284 PART THREE NATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS AFTER THE OCCUPATION XII. PERSISTENCE OF JAPANESE NATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS ................................. 333 1. Growing National Pride ........ 339 2. National Security Concerns ......... 350 3. Racial Implications ................ 369 XIII. NATIONAL INTEREST .............................. 385 XIV. SUMMARIES AND CONCLUSION....................... 436 BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................. 446 V LIST OF TABLES Page Table 1 Comparative Figures of Japanese Armies . .. 71 Table 2 Comparative Figures of Japanese Naval F o r c e s ................ 72 Table 3 Growth of Trade of Japan With Foreign Countries, Korea, and Formosa, 1885-1938 .. 87 Table 4 Primary School Enrollment in Japan, 1880-1910 106 Table 5 Trade of Japan Proper With Foreign Countries— 1903-1934 ......................... 113 Table 6 Growth of Major Shinto Shrines 1880-1934 126 Table 7 Attitudes Toward the Emperor ........ .288 Table 8 Support for, and Opposition to the Emperor S y s t e m ........................... 289 Table 9 Opinion on the Emperor S y s t e m ...............291 Table 10 Emperor System or Republican Government . .292 Table 11 Individual Rights Vs. Public Interest . .298 Table 12 Goals in Life ......... 299 Table 13 Attitudes Toward Superiors...................305 Table 14 Preference for Leadership T y p e ...............307 Table 15 Human Feeling Vs. Mechanization ............ 310 Table 16 Ancestor Worship ............ 311 Table 17 Political Party Support .................... 314 Table 18 Japanese Preference for Nationalities . .316 Table 19 Ranking of N a t i o n a l i s t s .................... 317 Table 20 Perception of Racial Superiority.............322 Table 21 Japanese Vs. Other Nationalities............ 323 vi vil LIST OF TABLESf continued Table 22 New Prime Minister's Visit to I s e .......... 328 Table 23 Rearmament for S e l f - D e f e n s e .................353 Table 24 Constitutional Provision for National Defense ............ 357 Table 25 Means for Japan's Security...................358 Table 26 Rearmament After Peace T r e a t y ...............362 Table 27 Rearmament After U. S.-Japan Security P a c t ................................363 Table 28 Opinion on L i b e r a l i s m ....................... 432 FORCED POLITICAL REORIENTATION IN JAPAN; A STUDY OF THE IMPACT OF DEFEAT ON JAPANESE NATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION There seems to be an ambiguous aspect with regard to Japanese national consciousness.^ A great deal of serious attention had been given to Japanese national consciousness and their perfervid political loyalties until Japan's defeat in 1945.^ In contrast, since the defeat there has been a studied indifference to the very same question. In the course of planning the Occupation of Japan, ^National consciousness, once a very popular idea employed freely and blithely by most students of social science,