Perceptions of Armed Policing: Barriers and motivations to becoming an Authorised Firearms Officer by Joe Simon Canterbury Christ Church University Thesis submitted for the degree of MSc by Research 2019 1 Abstract Police constabularies in England and Wales are under increased scrutiny to ensure diversity and representation across all aspects of policing business. Armed policing, however, has historically been understood as an exclusive, highly masculine and dangerous enterprise. This research examined police officers’ perceptions of the motivations and barriers to becoming and Authorised Firearms Officer (AFO). Based on a survey of 287 respondents, this research found that there was little difference between males and females on the value placed on gendered nature and aspects of the AFO role. However, findings also reveal enduring perceptions of firearms units are inaccessible, the work characterised in terms of threat, risk and dangerousness. For many underrepresented groups therefore, this leads to a sense of feeling unwelcome in firearms units. In order to improve perceptions of firearms as a policing activity, and the diversity within firearms units, police constabularies should seek to ensure that these units improve accessibility and inclusivity in addition to being cognisant of the impact that culture continues to have on the ability to recruit. 2 Acknowledgements This work would not have been possible without the advice and support of a number of people to whom I am extremely thankful. Firstly, I am especially grateful to the officers and staff who gave up time from their busy working lives to help facilitate and support this research. Secondly, to my supervisor Professor Robin Bryant, who has given endlessly of his time in guiding me through this process. I have been pushed to explore and understand new concepts and have learned much that will benefit me both personally and professionally, and for that I am most grateful. Finally, this work would not have been possible without the support of my friends and family. I especially dedicate this to my parents who have seen me start and abandon so many things without seeing them through to conclusion. 3 Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................ 2 Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................... 3 Chapter One: Introduction .............................................................................................. 8 History of armed policing in Great Britain ............................................................. 8 Routinely unarmed policing ....................................................................................................... 8 Developments in armed policing.............................................................................................. 9 Armed policing into the 21st Century ................................................................... 13 Routine Arming – The Debate ............................................................................... 15 Armed Policing Statistics – England and Wales ................................................... 15 Officer numbers .............................................................................................................................. 15 Firearms operations ..................................................................................................................... 16 Discharges of police firearms ................................................................................................... 16 Chapter Two: An Overview of Police Culture .......................................................... 17 Organisational culture........................................................................................... 17 Police occupational culture ................................................................................... 17 Police culture as a negative ................................................................................... 18 Reforming police culture....................................................................................... 18 Police ‘cultures’ ..................................................................................................... 20 Police culture and armed policing ........................................................................ 21 Cult of masculinity ......................................................................................................................... 21 Action, excitement and danger ................................................................................................ 22 ‘Good’ quality work ....................................................................................................................... 22 Orientation to work, job satisfaction and policing......................................................... 23 Job satisfaction ................................................................................................................................ 24 Motivations and policing ....................................................................................... 24 Police culture in the 21st Century ......................................................................... 25 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 26 Chapter Three: Methods ............................................................................................... 27 The Research Topic ................................................................................................. 27 Research Aims ........................................................................................................ 28 Researcher Situatedness ......................................................................................... 28 Research Design .................................................................................................... 30 Research Methods ......................................................................................................................... 30 The Research Site .................................................................................................... 32 4 Site Selection .................................................................................................................................... 33 Research Sample ................................................................................................... 34 Sample Selection ............................................................................................................................ 35 Questionnaire Construction .................................................................................. 36 Question Selection ......................................................................................................................... 38 The Likert Scale .............................................................................................................................. 38 Question Development ................................................................................................................ 40 The Bem Sex-Role Inventory .................................................................................................... 42 Questionnaire Testing ........................................................................................... 45 Analysis ................................................................................................................. 46 Reliability and Validity ................................................................................................................ 46 Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient (a) ............................................................................................ 47 Data Types and Measurement ................................................................................................. 50 Chi-squared test for association (χ2) .................................................................................... 51 Mann-Whitney U test ................................................................................................................... 52 Indication of direction in the event of association......................................................... 53 Ethical Considerations .......................................................................................... 54 Informed Consent .......................................................................................................................... 55 Confidentiality and Anonymity ............................................................................................... 57 Professional ethical challenges ............................................................................................... 58 Chapter Four: Findings ................................................................................................. 60 The research sample demographic ....................................................................... 60 Sample by gender........................................................................................................................... 60 Sample by AFO/Non-AFO status ............................................................................................ 62 Views on armed policing ......................................................................................